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Columbia  SSntirersits 

STUDIES  IN  COMPARATIVE  LITEBATUBE 


THE  ENGLISH  HEROIC  PLAY 


■j^yi^ 


THE 

'     ENGLISH  HEROIC  PLAY 


A  CRITICAL  DESCRIPTION  OF  THE  RHYMED 
TRAGEDY  OF  THE  RESTORATION 


BY 

LEWIS  NATHANIEL  CHASE 

INSTRUCTOB  IN   ENGLISH  IN   INDIANA  UNIVERSITY 
SOMETIME  TCTOR  IN   COMPARATIVE  LITERA- 
TURE IN  COLUMBIA  UNIVERSITY 


THE   COLUMBIA   UNIVERSITY  PRESS 

THE  MACMILLAN  COMPANY,  Agents 

LONDON:  MACMILLAN  &  CO.,  Ltd. 

1903 

AU  riffhU  reterved 


COPTKIOBT,  1908, 

bt  the  macmillan  company. 


Set  up,  electrotyped,  and  published  September,  1903. 


Noitioali  9TtH 

J.  8.  Coihlng  ft  Co.  -  Berwick  k  Smith  Co. 

Norwood,  HaM.,  VAJL. 


PREFACE 

This  essay  was  submitted  in  partial  fulfilment 
of  the  requirements  for  the  degree  of  Doctor  of 
Philosophy  at  Columbia  University.  A  study 
of  the  English  tragic  drama  of  the  latter  half 
of  the  seventeenth  century  falls  naturally  into 
three  parts  :  first,  a  critical  survey  of  the 
plays  with  the  object  of  determining  the  type  ; 
second,  an  inquiry  into  foreign  origins  and 
parallels ;  third,  a  history  of  the  type  in  Eng- 
land, the  occasion  for  its  introduction,  and  the 
causes  and  stages  of  its  decline. 

The  second  and  third  of  these  parts,  the 
research  for  which  has  already  in  large  measure 
been  done,  I  have  reserved  for  future  publica- 
tion. The  present  thesis  is  a  partial  introduc- 
tion to  this  more  comprehensive  work,  and 
deals  closely  with  the  most  famous  genre  of 
the  period,  commonly  called  the  heroic  drama. 
Broadly  speaking,  the  adjective  "  heroic  "  in  its 
connection    with   English    dramatic   literature 


ti  PREFACE 

would  be  applicable  to  many  plays  of  the  early 
seventeenth  century  (with  particular  appropri- 
ateness to  those  in  which  there  was  an  infusion 
of  Spanish  ideals  of  love  and  honor),  and  also 
to  some  eighteenth  century  tragedies  in  which 
the  dramatic  modes  of  the  immediately  preced- 
ing ages  were  faintly  reflected.  But  in  the 
strict  sense,  the  term  "  heroic  play  "  refers  to  a 
short-lived  kind  of  drama  which  arose  in  the 
reign  of  Charles  II,  and  disappeared  at  the 
dawn  of  the  following  century.  The  plays 
were  called  heroic  partly  because  they  were 
written  in  heroic  verse.  The  heroic  manner, 
however,  without  changing  its  own  nature, 
irregularly  broke  through  the  couplet  with 
which  it  was  primarily  identified,  and  toward 
which  its  relation  was  always  arbitrary  and  arti- 
ficial. It  was  thus  much  more  than  a  matter 
of  form.  It  was  concerned  with  plot ;  it  dic- 
tated characterization ;  and  it  permeated  with 
a  certain  sentiment  the  dramatic  types  with 
which  it  came  in  contact.  The  present  essay 
considers  the  plot,  characterization,  and  senti- 
ment of  the  rhymed  plays  of  the  Restoration 
under  this  larger  interpretation;  consequently 
the   discussion,   although  limited    to    rhymed 


PREFACE  vU 

plays,  extends  substantially  to  the  whole  man- 
ner of  Restoration  tragedy. 

The  main  study  is  nevertheless  strictly 
limited,  in  intent,  to  an  examination  of  the 
type  in  its  extant  examples  in  literary  texts. 
It  does  not  enter  upon  the  question  of  sources, 
nor  of  stage  presentation,  nor  of  historical 
development.  It  aims  simply  to  describe  the 
matter  of  the  heroic  play,  much  of  which  is 
rare  and  generally  inaccessible,  if  not  for- 
gotten; and  to  furnish  with  this  description 
a  careful  analysis  of  its  structure  and  psy- 
chology such  as  will  establish  common  traits. 
It  is  designed  for  special  students  of  Restora- 
tion drama,  and  differs  from  preceding  accounts 
in  that  it  treats  practically  the  entire  body  of 
the  rhymed  plays  of  the  Restoration  as  a  whole, 
and  not  as  the  work  of  individual  writers. 
The  rhymed  plays  of  the  leading  dramatists  of 
the  period  have  been  discussed  in  all  biographies 
and  critical  estimates  of  their  respective  authors. 
But  as  Dryden  was  not  only  the  central  figure 
of  the  time,  but  also  the  foremost  writer  of 
heroic  plays,  the  great  mass  of  comment  on  the 
kind,  with  copious  illustrations  from  his  dramas, 
is  to  be  sought  under  a  Dryden  bibliography. 


viU  PREFACE 

Johnson,  Scott,  Saintsbury,  Gosse,  Garnett,  and 
Beljame  are  some  of  the  chief  authorities,  not 
to  mention  numerous  others  of  reputation,  who 
have  considered  the  subject  incidentally  and  in 
part.  Holzhausen  alone,  I  believe,  has  written 
at  length  on  Dryden's  heroic  plays.  Genest 
mentions  a  greater  number  of  heroic  plays  in 
more  detail  than  any  other  writer,  and  Ward's 
standard  history  notes  the  best  of  them  and 
contains  a  valuable  summary  on  the  species. 
To  these  authorities  and  to  other  commentators 
on  Restoration  literature  I  desire  to  express  an 
indebtedness  the  extent  of  which  the  Index  and 
footnotes  indicate. 

The  standard  editions  of  D'Avenant,  Ether- 
idge,  Dryden,  Crowne,  Otway,  and  Lee  have 
been  used,  and  the  first  editions  of  the  other 
dramatists  (in  some  instances  the  only  editions), 
of  which  there  is  a  large  number  in  the  Columbia 
University  Library.  I  am  glad  to  take  this 
opportunity  to  thank  the  Librarian  and  his 
Assistants  for  their  unfailing  courtesy,  which 
facilitated  and  made  pleasanter  my  labors.  My 
friend  and  associate,  Dr.  Horatio  Sheafe  Krans, 
rendered  me  assistance  by  suggestions  and 
proof  corrections  which  were   of  great  value 


PREFACE  ix 

and  for  which  I  thank  him.  But  to  Professor 
George  Edward  Woodberry  my  obligation  has 
been  constant,  and  my  appreciation  of  his 
kindly  services  is  greater  than  can  be  ex- 
pressed here.  For  a  period  of  many  years 
he  has  been  my  friend  and  master.  He  sug- 
gested this  study  to  me,  and  throughout  its 
evolution,  in  matters  of  general  design  and 
of  minute  detail,  his  constant  interest  and 
advice  have  been  of  the  greatest  aid. 

L.    N.    C. 
Columbia  Univeesity,  August  15, 1903. 


CONTENTS 

CHAPTER  I 

rAoa 

Definition 1 

CHAPTER  II 
Plot 7 

CHAPTER  m 
Character 42 

CHAPTER  IV 
Sentiment    .        .        . 112 

CHAPTER  V 
General  Traits 161 

APPENDIX  A 

Relation    between    the    Heroic    Plat    and    the 

Opera 196 

zi 


xii  CONTENTS 

APPENDIX  B 

TAttn 

A  Brief  Survkt  of  Thhbb  Heroic  Plats  in  Oct- 

LIHB,   AS   CONTRASTED  WITH   ShAKESPBARB     .  .      213 

APPENDIX  C 
Bdrlbsqub  of  the  Heroic  Flat       ....     228 

APPENDIX  D 

A  List  of  Plats  written  partly  or  whollt  in 
Heroic  Verse,  together  with  Representative 
References.     1666-1703 232 

Index 245 


THE  ENGLISH  HEROIC  PLAY 


THE  ENGLISH  HEROIC  PLAY 


CHAPTER  I 

THE  DEFINITION 

The  heroic  play  employs  as  its  characteristic 
verse  form  the  pentameter  rhyming  in  couplets 
or  triplets  or  alternately,  and  uses  besides 
various  lyrical  metres,  and  also  blank  verse  and 
prose.  Triplets  are  scattered  throughout  the 
entire  body  with  noticeable  frequency,  and 
without  obvious  reason  except,  possibly,  for  the 
sake  of  varying  the  monotony.  Their  presence 
on  the  printed  page  is  usually  marked  by 
brackets,  and  in  some  plays  —  perhaps  rather 
in  some  writers  —  their  large  number  leaves 
the  impression  of  a  mannerism  of  style.  Their 
use  does  not  serve  so  much  to  vary  the  form  as 
to  intensify  the  rhyme.  There  are,  however, 
rare  instances  of  a  fine  appropriateness  to  the 
subject  and  a  consequent  heightening  of  poetic 


S  TIIE  ENGLISH  HEROIC  PLAY 

effect  due  to  their  presence,  as  notably  in  the 
charm  scene  of  the  second  act  of  "  Henry  III."  ^ 
A  line  of  less  than  ten  syllables  is  sometimes 
employed.  Thus  the  favorite  metre  of  the 
"  Siege  of  Rhodes  "  *  is  a  line  half  the  length  of 
the  pentameter.  This  form  is  repeated  infre- 
quently in  later  plays,  although  the  use  of  it 
and  of  other  broken  lines  is  one  of  the  evidences 
of  Dryden's  maturing  mastery  of  versification; 
in  other  writers  it  is  hard  to  decide  whether 
the  form  is  introduced  through  carelessness  or 
for  intentional  variety.  The  numerous  songs 
interspersed  throughout  the  text  are  written  in 
the  conventional  seventeenth  century  metres. 
Prose  was  considered  as  peculiarly  the  language 
of  comedy,  and  in  plays  of  that  sort  the  even- 
ness of  the  tone  is  maintained  by  that  form. 
The  more  serious  or  lofty  scenes  of  comedy, 
when  not  in  prose,  are  occasionally  in  rhyme, 
generally  in  blank  verse. 

The  presence  of  the  heroic  couplet  has  always 
been  deemed,  from  Dryden's  notes  to  the  most 

*  "  Henry  the  Third  of  France  stabb'd  by  a  Fryer  with 
the  Fall  of  the  Guise."    By  Thomas  Shipman.    1678. 

a  "  Siege  of  Rhodes."  By  Sir  William  D'Avenant.  1656. 
Thia  was  the  first  edition,  but  subsequently  the  play  was 
changed  and  enlarged.    See  Appendix  C. 


THE  DEFINITION  3 

recent  authorities,  the  sine  qua  non  of  an  heroic 
play.  "  Heroic  or  rhyming  plays "  they  have 
been  called  repeatedly,  and  without  arousing 
discussion.  Dryden,  Rymer,^  and  Genest  ^  have 
framed  or  indorsed  this  conception  and  have 
made  it  perfectly  clear.  It  is  legitimate  to 
maintain  this  definition,  and  a  sense  of  preci- 
sion and  a  desire  for  a  certain  unity  prompt 
its  adoption  here ;  else  the  term  "  heroic  play" 

1  If  other  sources  of  information  were  wanting  as  to  a 
definition  of  this  species  at  the  time  of  its  popularity, 
Eymer's  words  would  be  of  great  weight,  because  he  speaks 
with  the  authority  of  a  schoolmaster, with  a  pedant's  fondness 
for  precise  statement.  In  the  Advertisement  to  "  Edgar;  or 
the  English  Monarch,"  1678,  he  says,  "  This  I  call  an  Heroick 
Tragedy,  having  in  it  chiefly  sought  occasions  to  extoll  the 
English  Monarchy;  and  having  writ  it  in  that  Verse  which 
with  Cowley,  Benham,  and  Waller,  I  take  to  be  most  proper 
for  Epic  Poetry."  A  heroic  play,  therefore,  must  be  in 
rhyme,  and  the  use  of  the  words  " extoll "  and  "epic  "  mean 
that  it  shall  be  in  the  exalted  manner  proper  to  heroes  of 
romance.  Incidentally,  Dry  den's  usual  phrase  is  "  Heroic 
Play";  Langbaine's,  "a  Tragedy  writ  in  Heroic  Verse"; 
whereas  "  Heroic  Tragedy  "  which  has  become  equally  with 
"  Heroic  Play "  the  common  designation  for  this  kind  of 
drama,  is  on  the  title-page  of  only  one  composition  of  its 
class,  and  that  is  "Edgar." 

2  "At  this  time  any  Tragedy  written  in  rhyme  was  con- 
sidered as  a  heroick  play." — John  Genest,  "English 
Stage.  Some  Account  of  the  English  Stage  from  the  Resto- 
ration," etc.,  1832, 1.  223. 


4  THE  ENGLISH  HEROIC  PLAT 

becomes  a  matter  of  sentiment  entirely  divorced 
from  all  form,  its  nature  changed  through 
dissipation,  and  its  boundaries  extended  to  a 
time  as  yet  undetermined.  Ward's  phrase, 
"  heroic  tragedy  in  rhyme,"  which  would  have 
been  thought  a  tautology  in  the  seventeenth 
century,  indicates  the  growing  sense  of  the 
possibility  of  a  discussion  of  the  heroic  ele- 
ment apart  from  rhyme  ;  and  in  his  criticism 
of  "  Heroick  Love,"  ^  he  breaks  away  from  the 
established  tradition.  "This  play,  though 
written  in  blank  verse,  may  so  far  be  regarded 
as  a  signal  example  of  '  heroic '  tragedy,  that  its 
whole  action  tends  to  turn  on  the  one  passion 
of  love  —  the  '  universal  passion,'  truly,  of  the 
tragic  dramatists  of  this  period."*  Unfortu- 
nately a  determination  of  the  nature  of  heroic 
love  —  considerable  contribution  as  it  would  be 
—  would  not  exhaust  heroic  sentiment. 

Yet  it  must  be  admitted,  that  if  only  such 
plays  as  are  wholly  in  rhyme  are  to  be  regarded 
as  heroic  the  number  is  too  small  to  account 

*  "  Heroick  Love,  or  the  Cruel  Separation."  By  George 
Granville,  Lord  Lansdowne.    1698. 

•  A.  W.  Ward,  "  A  History  of  English  Dramatic  Litera- 
ture to  the  Death  of  Queen  Anne."  A  new  and  revised 
edition  (1809),  iii.  424. 


THE  DEFINITION  6 

for  the  furore  they  made  in  their  own  genera- 
tion. The  term  must  have  been  applied  to 
plays  partly  so  written  ;  but  such  an  admis- 
sion weakens  the  force  of  the  definition.  Un- 
less it  can  be  shown  that  in  a  play  containing 
prose,  blank  verse,  and  rhyme,  the  last  named 
has  a  function  distinct  from  the  others,  then 
the  limitation  of  rhyme  in  the  definition  must 
be  regarded  as  arbitrary.  But,  as  a  matter  of 
fact,  the  function  of  rhyme  is  not  evident  ;  or, 
to  be  bolder,  there  are  numerous  passages  in 
several  plays  that  make  the  conclusion  un- 
avoidable that  the  use  of  any  one  of  the  three 
forms  just  mentioned  rather  than  any  other, 
particularly  the  choice  between  blank  verse 
and  rhyme,  is  accidental  and  capricious.  The 
candid  author  of  "  Great  Favourite  "  gives  the 
true  state  of  the  case  :  "  I  will  not  therefore 
pretend  to  say,  why  I  writ  this  Play,  some 
Scenes  in  blank  Verse,  others  in  Rhyme,  since 
I  have  no  better  a  reason  to  give  then  Chance, 
which  waited  upon  my  present  Fancy  ;  and  I 
expect  no  better  a  reason  from  any  ingenious  per- 
son, then  his  Fancy  for  which  he  best  relishes."  ^ 

1"  Great  Favourite,  or  the  Duke  of  Lerma."   By  Sir 
Robert  Howard.     1668.    To  the  Reader. 


8  THE  ENGLISH  HEROIC  PLAY 

An  inspection  of  the  play  itself,  which  is 
mainly  written  in  blank  verse,  seems  to  justify 
this  remark,  especially  in  the  fourth  and  last 
acts.  A  strange  instance  of  the  mingling  of 
forms  is  found  in  the  "  Destruction  of  Troy."  ^ 
This  play,  which  also  is  mainly  in  blank  verse, 
breaks  into  couplets  so  irregularly  that  it  seems 
as  if  the  author  were  uncertain,  when  he  began 
a  line,  whether  it  would  end  in  a  rhyme  or  not. 
The  "  Sacrifice"  ^  is  another  example  of  the  indis- 
criminate use  of  the  three  forms.  The  search 
for  system  is  nowhere  more  interesting  and  no- 
where more  futile  than  in  "  Marcelia."  ^  Dry- 
den's  versification  has  been  pretty  thoroughly 
investigated,  especially  the  growth  of  his  tech- 
nical skill.  The  mixed  passages  of  blank  verse 
and  rhyme  in  which  his  irresolution  and  un- 
certainty are  displayed  further  illustrate  the 
absence  of  any  fixed  usage  in  the  employment 
of  rhyme  as  a  necessary  element  in  the  heroic 
play. 

1  »♦  Destruction  of  Troy."    By  John  Bankes.     1679. 

*  "  Sacrifice."     By  Sir  Francis  Fane.     1086. 

•  '♦  Marcelia,  or  tlie  Treacherous  Friend."  By  Mrs.  F. 
Boothby.    1670. 


CHAPTER  II 

PLOT 

The  heroic  element  in  Restoration  drama  is 
in  itself  tolerably  distinct  and  easily  ascertain- 
able wherever  found,  at  least  in  its  early 
phases.  Its  introduction  into  English  dra- 
matic literature  was  an  innovation,  and  from 
the  first  so  dominated  certain  theatrical  pro- 
ductions of  many  sorts  that,  whatever  their 
genre,  they  became,  in  fact,  heroic  plays. 
Yet  this  element  was  not  from  the  first,  nor 
ever  after,  peculiar  to  any  single  dramatic  / 
form,  but  inserted  itself  into  them  all  in  vary- 
ing degrees  and  with  varying  success.  It 
worked  its  way  into  the  opera,  comedy,  tragi- 
comedy, history,  and  tragedy  of  the  day,  with- 
out altering  their  respective  moulds,  no  matter 
how  it  affected  their  tone. 

The  origin  of  the  English  heroic  play  and 
of  the  English  opera  was  simultaneous.     The   / 
"  Siege  of  Rhodes  "  has  been  called,  and  with  ' 
7 


8  THE  ENGLISH  HEROIC  PLAY 

reason,  the  first  heroic  play  ;  and  with  reason, 
also,  it  has  been  called  the  first  English  opera. 
That  is  not  to  say  that  it  is  completely  one 
or  the  other ;  but  toward  both  it  stands,  if 
as  nothing  more,  "in  an  indistinct  relation 
of  parentage."  ^  The  author  styled  it  an  opera, 
and  thus  introduced  a  new  word  into  the  lan- 
guage.* In  so  far  as  it  contained  singing  or 
chanting,  as  part  of  the  action,  not  extraneous 
to  it,  the  "  Siege  of  Rhodes  "  was  legitimately 
operatic.  In  paying  unprecedented  attention 
to  scenery  and  pageantry  (crude  as  it  was  in 
these  respects  in  comparison  with  its  successors), 
it  began  in  England  the  tradition,  which  had 
long  been  in  force  on  the  Continent,  that  the 
spectacle  was  a  necessary  operatic  feature,  dis- 
tinguishing the  opera  hardly  less  than  vocal  mu- 
sic from  drama  proper.     So  Langbaine  says  of 

*  "Ward,  iii.  328,  where  the  phrase  is  applied  only  to  opera. 

*  His  reason  for  using  the  word  seems  to  have  been  almost 
entirely  commercial,  without  much  consideration  of  fltness. 
It  was  necessary  to  hoodwink  the  Puritan  police  authorities 
in  order  to  give  the  production.  Modem  parallels  are  com- 
mon. "  Long  after  he  had  dismissed  the  music  and  produced 
regular  tragedies  he  adhered  to  the  word  opera,  the  use  o£ 
which  had  enabled  him  to  steer  his  bark  in  '  ticklish  times.'  " 
—  Joseph  Knioht,  Historical  Preface  to  John  Downes,  "  Bo«- 
ciuB  AnglicanuB,"  etc.,  1886. 


PLOT  9 

"  Circe  "  ^ :  "  The  Scenes  and  Machines  may 
give  it  a  Title  tcr  that  Species  of  Dramatick 
Poetry,  call'd  an  Opera."  ^  It  is  almost  need- 
less to  state  that  this  tradition,  in  spite  of 
impecuniousness  and  consequent  bareness  of 
operatic  productions  from  time  to  time,  has 
been  continuous. 

The  "  Siege  of  Rhodes  "  is  heroic  in  that  it  / 
is  written  in  rhyme,  partly  in  heroic  couplets  ; 
it  has  a  war  background  ;  it  is  a  story  of  love, 
with  its  usual  ingredient  of  jealousy  and  of 
honor ;  ^  and  it  contains  argumentation  in 
verse.*  That  the  opera  and  the  heroic  play 
should  have  first  manifested  themselves  in 
England  precisely  at  the  same  time  in  the 
same  production  is  curious,  and  appears  almost 
accidental ;   but  this  fact  linked  their  names 

1  "Circe."    By  Charles  D'Avenant,  LL.D.     1677. 

2  Gerard  Langbaine,  "An  Account  of  the  English  Dra- 
matick Poets,"  etc.,  1691,  p.  116.  "The  machines  were  as 
essential  to  opera  as  the  music  and  poetry,  and  the  artists 
of  the  scenery  and  dresses  were  at  least  the  equal  of  the 
poet  and  musical  composer."  Dryden's  Essays,  edited  by 
W.  P.  Ker,  i.  Ixv-lxvi.     1890. 

8  "  "Well  calculated  to  please  when  Love  and  Honour  were 
the  order  of  the  day."   Genest,  i.  39. 

*  Scene  between  Solyman  and  lanthe  in  Act  3,  Pt.  2, 
and  between  Solyman  and  Roxolana,  Act  4. 


/: 


10  THE  ENGLISH  HEROIC  PLAY 

together  far  more  closely  than  events  justi- 
fied, for  it  was  not  the  operatic  features  that 
made  the  piece  heroic,  or  vice  versa.  There 
are  many  heroic  plays  in  which  such  features 
are  wanting  ;  and  so  the  statement  that  the 
kind  "always  retained  some  tinge"  of  the 
opera,  *  is  not  strictly  warrantable.  They  were 
essentially  different  in  kind,  and  the  former 
could  be  independent  of  the  other.  Their  re- 
lationship, however,  was  intimate. 

It  is  to  be  remembered,  first,  that  in  this 
period  music  took  its  permanent  abode  in  the 
theatre.  Henceforth,  the  playhouse  and  the 
music-house  were  to  be  one  and  the  same.  The 
English  people  had  always  been  rich  in  folk- 
songs ;  but  these,  like  the  ballads,  which  were 
their  nearest  literary  counterpart,  were  unrec- 
ognized among  the  learned,  and  homeless,  ex- 
cept in  the  common  heart.  Music  fared  better 
than  its  sister  art  under  the  Commonwealth, 
principally  perhaps  because  of  Cromwell's  lik- 
ing for  it ;  but  on  the  Restoration  it  seems  to 
have  been  recognized  for  the  first  time  as  a 
necessary  adjunct  to  the  theatre.     "  A  regular 

*  George  Saintebury,  •'  Life  of  Dryden,"  English  Men  of 
Letters  Series,  p.  18. 


PLOT  11 

band  of  musicians  was  placed  in  the  orchestra, 
who,  between  the  acts,  performed  pieces  of  music 
composed  for  that  purpose  and  called  act-tunes  ; 
and  also  accompanied  the  vocal  music  sung  on 
the  stage,  and  played  the  music  of  the  dances. 
Music  thus  became  attached  to  the  theatres, 
which  from  this  time  became  the  principal  nurs- 
eries of  musicians,  both  composers  and  perform- 
ers. The  most  favorite  music  was  that  which 
was  heard  in  the  dramatic  pieces  of  the  day  ;  and 
to  sing  and  play  the  songs,  dances,  and  act-  ^ 
tunes  of  the  theatre  became  a  general  amuse- 
ment in  fashionable  society."  ^  Doubtless  this 
attention  to  the  art  of  music  in  public  places 
encouraged  its  practice  among  the  people. 
Pepys's  passion  for  it  is  typical.  The  recent 
revival  of  interest  and  consequent  investigation 
of  music  of  this  period  have  revealed  a  knowl- 
edge and  mastery,  among  amateurs,  hitherto 
unsuspected,  while  there  were  professional  per- 
formers of  world  fame,  native  musicians  of  the 
first  rank,'  and  Purcell,  probably  England's 
most  distinguished  and  most  remarkable  com- 
poser. There  is  good  evidence  that  skill 
in  technique  steadily  improved  from  the  cor- 
1  George  Hogarth,  "  Memoirs  of  the  Opera,"  1851,  i.  78-79. 


13  THE  ENGLISH  HEROIC  PLAY 

onation  to  the  end  of  the  century.*  This 
increasing  popularity  and  cultivation  of  the  art 
were  shown  in  all  sorts  of  theatrical  perform- 
ances. The  opera  and  the  heroic  play  arose 
simultaneously  with  this  interest,  —  the  first 
essentially  musical,  and  the  other  capable  of 
assimilating  operatic  features  without  losing 
its  character.  They  were  both  produced  on 
the  same  stage,  by  the  same  people,  ^  for  the 
same  audience  ;  thus  their  intimate  connection 
on  the  external  side  is  manifest.  The  resem- 
blance, however,  is  more  than  external,  for  in  the 
second  place  both  forms  are  written  in  rhyme  ;  ^ 
but  whereas  the  former  in  its  purity  is  entirely 
in  heroic  couplets,  the  latter  is  in  a  variety  of 
metres;  and  whereas  the  former  was  an  impor- 
tation avowedly  introduced  into  England  to 
please  the  king,  operas  are  in  rhyme  to  enhance 

1  "  All  this  while  play-house  music  improved  yearly,  and  is 
arrived  to  greater  perfection  than  ever  I  knew  it."  —  James 
Wright,  "  Historia  Histrionica,"  1699. 

'  Cf.  Hogarth,  i.  143  ff.,  for  the  names  of  some  actors  who 
were  also  singers.  Among  them  were  Harris,  Mountfort, 
Mary  Davis  and  Mrs.  Bracegirdle. 

»  "  The  libretto  of  an  opera  is  a  peculiar  kind  of  drama 
entirely  in  verse  and  set  to  music,  and  partly  in  prose  to  be 
spoken." — A.  Hsnneqcin,  "Art  of  Playwriting,"  1890, 
p.  49. 


PLOT  18 

the  lyric  effect  and  to  facilitate  the  singer's 
execution.  When  an  opera  is  mainly  in  pen- 
tameters, as  Dr.  Charles  D'Avenant's  "  Circe," 
it  indicates  the  influence  of  the  heroic  play  upon 
the  other  form,  as  this  kind  of  verse  is  in  itself 
but  ill  suited  to  operatic  uses. 

The  third  likeness  between  the  two  is  that 
the  matter  of  both  is  love.  But  here  again  the 
difference  in  source  makes  more  patent  the  dif- 
ference in  kind.  Love  in  the  heroic  plays  was 
an  exotic  that  never  existed  anywhere,  least  of 
all  in  England,  and  was  put  into  dramatic  form 
to  please  and  appease  the  same  people  that  read 
the  current  romances  ;  while  love  was  then  and 
always  the  main  subject  of  the  opera,  not  pri- 
marily because  it  reflected  a  transitory  fashion 
(although  one  is  not  easily  distinguishable  from 
the  other  as  shown  in  Restoration  art,  so  per- 
vasive was  the  heroic  quality),  but  rather  be- 
cause love  is  of  all  the  passions  the  one  for 
which  music  is  the  most  natural  voice. ^ 

The  union  of  the  heroic  and  the  operatic  was 
a  natural,  and  not,  in  the  main,  a  contradictory 
alliance.  As  much  cannot  be  said  of  the  meet- 
ing, within  the  same  play,  of  the  heroic  and  the 
1  See  Appendix  A. 


14  THE  ENGLISH  HEROIC  PLAY 

comic.  The  heroic  characteristic  of  exalted 
sentiment  is  opposed  to  the  spirit  of  comedy, 
most  of  all  to  the  comedy  spirit  of  the  Restora- 
tion. And  yet  at  the  very  outset  of  its  career, 
it  entered  comedy,  for  the  "  Comical  Revenge,"  * 
1664,  was  "  the  earliest  regular  play  in  which 
the  use  of  rime  was  actually  attempted,  unless 
its  isolated  application  by  Dryden  in  two  pas- 
sages of  '  Rival  Ladies,'  1663,^  be  taken  into 
account.  Etheridge  therefore  was  courageous 
enough  to  carry  out  in  a  regular  comedy  the 
innovations  which  D'Avenant  had  employed  in 
an  'operatic'  entertainment,  and  on  behalf  of 
which  Dryden  had  argued."^ 

The  comedy  of  this  era  was  the  most  rigidly 
defined  of  all  the  current  dramatic  types.  It 
began  early  in  the  sixties,  and  although  its 
brightest  lights  did  not  shine  for  upwards  of 
thirty  or  forty  years,  it  early  reached  a  mature 
and  self-contented  state.  Considering  the  vast 
body  of  plays  it  embraces,  the  term,  "comedy 
of  manners,"  is  a  peculiarly  adequate  and  satis- 

*  "  Comical  Revenge,  or,  Love  in  a  Tub."  By  Sir  George 
Etheridge.     1664. 

«  "  Rival  Ladies."    By  John  Dryden.    1664. 

*  Ward,  iii.  444. 


PLOT  15 

factory  designation.  Nothing  could  be  more 
anti-heroic  either  in  intent  or  practice.  To 
satirize  the  foibles  of  the  age  was  its  object; 
but  neither  with  satire  nor  with  foibles,  nor 
with  any  particular  age  was  the  heroic  senti- 
ment of  Restoration  drama  concerned.  And 
as  for  diction,  the  "  comic  dramatists,  with  the 
exception  of  a  very  few  experiments,  confine 
themselves  to  the  use  of  prose."  ^  Well  defined 
and,  in  general,  strictly  adhered  to  as  the  sepa- 
ration between  comedy  and  tragedy  was,  the 
gulf  between  the  comic  and  the  heroic  manner 
was  even  wider;  for  whereas  there  is  at  least 
one  contemporary  comedy  in  blank  verse,^  one 
in  rhyme  is  yet  to  be  discovered  ;  ^  the  presence 
of  rhyme,  moreover,  was  accompanied  with  suf- 
ficient change  in  the  treatment  of  the  subject- 
matter,  if  not  in  the  subject-matter  itself,  to 
render  the  title  "  comedy,"  as  it  was  then  used, 
inappropriate. 

1  Ward,  iii.  498. 

2  "  Married  Beau,  or  the  Curious  Impertinent."  By  John 
Crowne.     1694. 

8  Certain  French  comedies  were  translated  into  English 
rhyme  ;  and  although  the  greater  part  of  serious  scenes  in 
Restoration  comedy,  not  in  prose,  are  written  in  blank  verse, 
some  are  in  rhyme. 


/ 


W  THE  ENGLISH  HEROIC  PLAY 

The  heroic  element,  when  introduced  into 
comedy,  had  a  more  revolutionary  effect  than  it 
had  upon  any  other  type.  To  the  opera,  it  was 
not,  on  the  whole,  antagonistic,  and  tragedy  was 
its  home.  It  transformed  comedies  into  some- 
thing different,  usually  called  tragicomedies ; 
but  whereas  comedy  was  a  firmly  established 
form,  tragicomedy  has  always  been  a  make- 
shift term,  brought  into  more  or  less  use  ^ 
according  to  the  narrow  or  liberal  interpreta- 
tion of  the  two  types  which  it  has  sought  to 
blend.  It  has  been  described  as  a  species  "  re- 
sembling the  regular  Tragedy  in  its  outward 
form,  but  containing  some  comic  characters, 
and  always  having  a  happy  termination ; "  ^  and 
also  referred  to  as  that  "mixed  species  which 
came  to  be  called  (but  by  no  consistent  usage) 
tragicomedy.^''  ^  Genest  says,  that "  Ormasdes  "  * 
was  "  called  a  T.  C.  as  no  person  is  killed,  but 
there  are  no  comic  scenes, — the  whole  is  seri- 
ous." ^    There  are  three  so-called  tragicomedies 

»  There  were  more  than  fifty  plays  of  this  class  from  1666 
to  1703. 

« J.  W.  Donaldson,  "  Theatre  of  the  Greeks,"  1860 
(seventh  ed.),  p.  75.  «  Ward,  i.  210. 

«  "  Ormasdes,"    By  Sir  William  Killigrew.     1665. 

•  Genest,  x.  139. 


PLOT  17 

with  an  heroic  element :  "  Amazon  Queen,"  ^ 
"Rival  Ladies,"  and  "Marcelia."  The  first  is 
entirely,  the  others  partly,  in  rhyme.  "  Mar- 
celia "  and  "  Rival  Ladies "  contain  distinct 
comic  characters  and  incidents,  but  no  more  so 
than  "  Altemira"  ^ and  "Fatal  Jealousie,"  ^  which 
were  called  tragedies.  The  "  Comical  Re- 
venge," with  no  designation  on  the  title-page, 
was  considered  a  comedy  by  contemporaries  — 
Evelyn,  Downes,  Langbaine ;  but  Ward  *  takes 
pains  to  use  the  prefix.  Dry  den  himself  styled 
the  "  Rival  Ladies "  a  tragicomedy ;  but  he 
called  "  Marriage-a-la-Mode  "  ^  a  comedy,  which 
Langbaine  thus  takes  exception  to ;  "  This  play, 
though  stil'd  in  the  Title-page  as  Comedy,  is 
rather  a  Tragicomedy,  and  consists  of  two 
different  actions;  the  one  serious,  the  other 
Comick."  ^     He  is  followed  by  Genest. 

The  form  of   drama  called  histories,  so  nu- 
merous in  the  Elizabethan  era,  were  exceedingly 

1  "  Amazon  Queen,  or  the  Amours  of  Thalestris  to  Alex- 
ander the  Great. "     By  Jo.  "Weston,     1667. 

2  "Altemira."     By  Roger  Boyle,  Earl  of  Orrery.     1702. 
8  "FatalJealousie."    By  Henry  Neville  Payne  (?).    1674. 

♦  Ward,  iii.  498  n. 

6  "  Marriage-a-la-Mode."    By  John  Dryden.     1673. 

•  Langbaine,  p.  166. 

o 


18  THE  ENGUSH  HEROIC  PLAY 

and  significantly  rare  in  the  last  half  of  the 
century.  There  seem  to  have  been  no  more 
than  four  so  styled,  of  which  two  are  heroic 
plays.  There  is  nothing  in  either  of  them  that 
would  prevent  their  being  placed  under  the 
head  of  tragedy,  as  tragedy  was  then  interpreted. 
This  applies  the  more  strictly  to  "Charles 
VIII,"  1  whereas  the  claim  of  "  Henry  V"2  for 
consideration  under  any  recognized  dramatic 
type  would  be  easy  to  disprove.  It  has  none  of 
the  characteristics  of  Restoration  comedy;  its 
tone  is  more  serene  and  unperturbed  through- 
out than  that  of  any  other  tragedy,  if  such  it  be, 
while  the  much-abused  historical  novel,  in  its 
most  untruthful  phases,  is  a  slave  to  fact  in 
comparison  with  this  play  in  indebtedness  to 
historical  truth.  It  is  doubtless  because  of  the 
mere  frequent  mention  of  historic  figures  and 
events,  regardless  of  most  amazing  twistings  of 
fact  and  additions  of  fiction,  that  these  plays 
were  called  histories. 

The  authors  did  not  always  please  to  desig- 
nate the  kind  of  composition  on  the    title-page 

1  "The  History  of  Charles  the  Eighth  of  France,  or  the 
Invasion  of  Naples  by  the  French. "    By  John  Crowne.    1672. 

»  "  The  History  of  Henry  the  Fifth."  By  Roger  Boyle, 
Karl  of  Orrery.     1669. 


PLOT  19 

of  the  play  or  elsewhere.  This  omission  seldom 
causes  confusion,  because  the  term  "  tragedy  " 
was  applied  liberally,  not  to  say  inconsistently  on 
the  whole,  or  rashly.  Sometimes  the  writer 
uses  the  term  where  the  critic  seems  surprised 
at  its  use.  Thus  Genest  remarks  of  the  "  Lib- 
ertine "  ^ :  "  As  there  is  Superabundance  of 
murder  in  this  play  it  is  called  a  Tragedy,  but 
the  dialogue  is  in  great  measure  Comic." 
The  obvious  construction  of  Langbaine's  com- 
ment on  the  application  of  the  term  to  the 
"  Black  Prince  "  ^  is  that  he  considered  such  use 
uncommon.  "  Tho  this  Play  in  the  Title-page 
be  call'd  a  Tragedy,  yet  it  ends  successfully: 
and  therefore  I  presume  was  rather  stiled  so  by 
the  Author  from  the  Quality  and  Grandeur  of 
the  Persons  in  the  Drama,  than  from  any  un- 
fortunate Catastrophe."  There  were  indeed 
two  forms  of  tragedy,  the  main  difference  de- 
pending on  the  fortunate  or  unfortunate  ca- 
tastrophe. "  The  Tragedy  ends  Prosperously," 
says  Rymer  in  the  Advertisement  to  his  own 
play,  "Edgar":  "A  sort  of  Tragedy  that 
rarely  succeeds  ;  man  being  apter  to  pity  the 

1  "  Libertine."     By  Thomas  Shadwell.     1676. 

2  "Black  Prince."   By  Roger  Boyle,  Earl  of  Orrery.    1669. 


20  THE  ENGLISH  HEROIC  PLAY 

Distressed,  then  to  re  Joyce  with  the  Prosperous. 
Yet  this  sort  seems  principally  to  have  pleased 
Euripides  ;  and  is  necessary  here." 

Investigation  shows,  however,  that  tragedies 
J  with  happy  ending  were  neither  uncommon  or 
/unsuccessful.  Tragedy  was  the  natural  abid- 
ing-place of  the  heroic  element.  With  comedy 
it  was  unsympathetic ;  its  relation  to  opera  was 
appreciably  accidental ;  but  in  tragedy  it  was  at 
home.  So  closely  and  yet  rightly  are  they 
associated  that  the  terms  "heroic  play"  and 
"  heroic  tragedy "  have  always  been  used 
without  discrimination.  The  "  Quality  and 
Grandeur  "  of  heroic  characters  was  peculiar  to 
no  other  form  than  tragedy.  In  fact  all  phases 
of  heroic  diction  and  sentiment  might  be  read- 
ily construed  as  appropriate  to  tragedy.  The 
presence  of  the  heroic  element  did  not  alter  or 
disturb  the  main  drift  of  tlie  tragic  form  which 
includes  an  unhappy  termination.  Up  to  that 
time  unhappy  catastrophe  had  been  so  much 
the  rule  as  to  be  commonly  considered  essential ; 
but  in  the  heroic  element,  as  such,  there  was 
nought  to  necessitate  such  an  ending.  It 
might,  perhaps,  be  insisted  upon  that  an 
unsuccessful  termination  is  out  of  accord  with 


PLOT  21 

the  hero's  character,  where  frequently  the  suc- 
cess of  marvellous  actions  justified  the  usual 
accompanying  boast.  There  were  nearly  as 
many  heroic  tragedies  of  prosperous  conclusion 
as  of  the  other  sort  ;  and  this  large  number 
might  reasonably  be  attributed  to  the  presence 
and  influence  of  the  heroic  element. 

The  "  Conquest  of  Granada "  ^  is  the  most 
illustrious  of  this  kind.  The  fall  of  the  city 
is  not  the  main  matter,  but  rather  the  deeds 
of  Almanzor  ;  his  success  is  literally  the  most 
prolonged  of  any  in  English  dramatic  literature, 
by  five  acts,  as  the  play  is  in  ten.  Generally, 
of  course,  it  is  easy  enough  to  distinguish  be- 
tween a  happy  and  an  unfortunate  conclusion  ; 
but  occasionally  there  is  chance  for  difference. 
In  the  "  Conquest  of  China  "  ^  there  is  a  "  super- 
abundance of  murder,"  yet  the  murdered  are 
all  villains  and  the  righteous  survive.  Where 
the  principal  character  is  a  villain,  in  the  end 
he  is  usually  punished ;  but  in  such  cases 
[       much  depends  on  the  importance  of  other  char- 

1  "  Almanzor  and  Almahide,  or  the  Conquest  of  Granada 
by  tlie  Spaniards."     By  John  Dryden.     1672. 

2  "Conquest  of  China  by  the  Tartars."    By  Elkanah 
I.      Settle.     1676. 


22  THE  ENGLISH  HEROIC  PLAY 

acters,  and  to  what  extent  he  is  preeminent  over 
them.  Richard  Ill's  fate  is  not  so  fraught  with 
tragic  consequences  in  the  "  English  Princess  "  ^ 
as  in  the  Shakespearean  play.  In  the  latter,  the 
leading  interests  are  his  character  and  his  re- 
lation to  England,  so  his  death  is  more  deeply 
and  widely  significant  than  in  the  former  where 
the  sole  theme  is  love  ;  Richard  is  the  unsuccess- 
ful suitor  for  the  princess's  hand,  and  his  fortu- 
nate rival  is  Richmond  ;  his  death  removes  the 
obstacle  to  their  marriage.  Perhaps  the  ter- 
mination of  the  "  Rival  Kings  "  ^  is  on  the  whole 
fortunate,  and  still  one  of  the  surviving  heroes 
exclaims  : 

"  We  purchase  pleasure,  almost  with  despair." 

In  "Edgar,"  likewise,  although  the  principal 
lovers  survive,  their  joy  is  hardly  conceivable, 
so  dearly  is  it  bought.  It  should  be  ob- 
served that  the  chief  traits  of  the  modern  melo- 
drama, which  are  exaggerated  sentiment  and  a 
happy  termination  after  dire  misgivings,  were 
first  popularized  in  the  heroic  tragedy. 

1  "English  Princess  or  the  Death  of  Richard  III."  [By 
John  Caryl]  1667. 

"  "  Rival  Kings,  or  the  Loves  of  Oroondates  and  Statira." 
By  John  Bankes.    1677. 


PLOT  28 

It  is  mainly  as  tragedy,  therefore,  that  the 
heroic  play  is  to  be  regarded.  The  pattern 
came  from  France  directly  with  the  many 
borrowings  of  the  Merry  Monarch.  There  was 
then  no  judgment  exercised  as  to  the  suita- 
bility of  the  imported  articles  for  native  use, 
but  everything  French  was  brought  into  Eng- 
land wholesale,  at  random,  and  without  reason. 
The  native  character  of  the  importations  was 
so  ill  comprehended  that  the  foreign  taste  in 
drama  was  no  less  ridiculous  than  in  clothes, 
and  quite  as  extensive  and  obvious.  There 
is  fashion  in  plays  as  well  as  clothes,  Dryden 
says  ;  and  just  as  the  summer  Parisian  styles 
did  not  reach  London,  in  those  days  of  slow 
communication,  until  winter,  and  yet  as  soon 
as  they  came  were  donned  straightway  regard- 
less of  the  season,  as  one  of  the  comedies 
states,  just  so  the  French  form  of  tragedy  was 
welcomed  in  England,  with  rhyme,  but  without 
reason,  and  though  it  soon  drifted  away  in 
spirit  from  its  origin,  it  remained  to  the  end 
foreign,  exotic,  un-English. 

The  imitation  of  the  French  manner  in  the 
heroic  play  was  manifested  most  considerably 
in  the  construction  of   the   plot.     It  is  not   a 


24  THE  ENGLISH  HEROIC  PLAY 

question  of  where  the  stories  came  from  in  the 
first  place,  but  how  tliey  were  handled  after 
their  introduction  into  England.  As  laziness 
occasioned,  according  to  Shadwell  ^  the  borrow- 
ings from  France,  so  absence  of  originality  or 
of  any  deviation  from  what  was  considered 
the  French  manner  is  the  most  noticeable 
characteristic  of  the  external  form  of  heroic 
plays. 

The  real  unlikeness,  however,  between  the 
genuine  French  manner  and  what  was  consid- 
ered as  such  in  England  should  be  borne  in 
mind.  It  is  not  surprising  that  French  senti- 
ment and  spirit  in  contact  with  the  English 
should  undergo  transformation.  Imitation, 
nevertheless,  is  most  patent  in  the  technical, 
almost  manual  labor  of  playwriting.  But 
even  here  allowance  is  to  be  made  for  cer- 
tain discrepancies  between  the  original  and  the 
imitation,  arising  fundamentally  from  the  dif- 
ference in  the  genius  of  the  two  peoples. 

The  French  manner,  as  it  was  interpreted, 

was  formulated  into  a  code  of  precise  rules  so 

minute,  and  withal  so  comprehensive,  that  any 

sign  of  originality  on  the  part  of  the  aspirant 

1  Pi-eface  to  the  "  Miser." 


PLOT  26 

for  dramatic  honors  would  seem  superfluous 
and  out  of  place.  These  rules  were  readily 
conned  and  applied,  else  there  would  not  have 
been  so  many  plays  put  on  the  boards.  That 
Dryden  produced  six  in  one  year,  and  Settle 
wrote  "  Cambyses "  ^  when  he  was  eighteen, 
shows  the  easiness  of  the  feat. 

The  first  and  foremost  of  those  rules  was 
regard  of  the  three  unities.  With  a  very  few 
exceptions  ^  all  heroic  plays  observe  them,  or 
more  correctly,  there  is  no  tangible  evidence  to 
the  contrary.  Complete  silence  on  the  subject, 
either  within  the  text  or  elsewhere,  regarding 
the  time  supposed  to  have  passed  between  the 
first  and  last  act,  makes  judgment  difficult. 
Still,  it  may  be  assumed,  when  the  unities  of 
action  and  place  are  observed  and  nothing  is 
said  about  the  time,  that  the  last,  also,  is  re- 
spected. It  is  the  only  one  that  seems  to  cause 
the  authors  embarrassment.^  Generally,  direct 
mention  of  it  is  avoided  ;    sometimes  a  queen 

1"  Cambyses,  King  of  Persia."  By  Elkanah  Settle, 
1671. 

2  "  Henry  III."  "  The  Scene  Blois  remov'd  at  th'  Fourth 
Act  to  the  Camp  at  St.  Clou  before  Paris. "  In  "  Marcelia  " 
the  scene  is  at  Lyons  and  Marseilles. 

8  As  in  "  Henry  III,"  Act  2. 


26  THE  ENGLISH  HEROIC  PLAT 

asking  the  king  for  permission  to  occupy  the 
throne  for  three  days,*  and  the  not  uncommon 
crowding  of  more  than  one  battle  into  the  time 
given,  perhaps  justify  the  conclusion  that  the 
time-limit  may  have  been  extended  beyond 
twenty-four  hours;  but,  even  so,  the  strict 
observance  of  the  other  unities  suggests  the 
probability  of  a  liberal  interpretation  here 
rather  than  a  wilful  breach.*  Observance  of 
unity  of  action  was  responsible  for  the  general 
sameness  of  tone,  which  implied  the  restriction  if 
not  the  exclusion  of  the  comic;  and  the  unity  of 
action  once  in  force,  the  others  follow  naturally. ^ 
The  following  quotation  from  Langbaine  shows 
the  current  deference  toward  the  unities  and 
also  the  difficulty  of  getting  the  mass  of  the 
people  to  appreciate  correctness  : 

"  I  must  say  this  for  our  countrymen.  That 
notwithstanding  our  modern  authors  have 
borrow'd   much   from   the   French,  and   other 

1  "Siege  of  Memphis,  or  the  Ambitious  Queen."  By 
Thomas  Durfey.     1670. 

^  Now  and  then  attention  is  called  to  the  strict  observance 
of  them  all,  as  in  the  Prologue  to  the  "  Maiden  Queen  "  and 
the  statement  prefixed  to  "  Edgar  "  :  "  The  time  of  the  Rep- 
resentation from  Twelve  at  Noon  to  Ten  at  Night" 

»  Thomas  Rymer,  "  The  Tragedies  of  the  Last  Age,"  etc., 
1678,  p.  24. 


PLOT  27 

nations,  yet  have  we  several  Pieces,  if  I  may 
so  say,  of  our  own  manufacture  which  equal  at 
least,  any  of  our  neighbours  productions.  This 
is  a  truth  so  generally  known,  that  I  need  not 
bring  instances  to  prove,  that  in  the  humour  of 
our  comedies,  and  in  the  characters  of  our 
tragedies,  we  do  not  yield  to  any  other  nation. 
'Tis  true  that  the  unities  of  Time,  Place  and 
Action,  which  are  generally  allowed  to  be  the 
Beauties  of  a  Play,  and  which  the  French  are 
so  careful  to  observe,  add  all  Lusture  to  their 
Plays ;  nevertheless  several  of  our  poets  have 
given  proof,  that  did  our  Nation  more  regard 
them,  they  could  practice  them  with  equal  suc- 
cess :  But  as  a  correct  play  is  not  so  much  under- 
stood, or  at  least  regarded  by  the  generality  of 
Spectators,  and  that  few  of  our  Poets  now-a-days 
write  so  much  for  Honour  as  Profit,  they  are 
therefore  content  to  please  at  an  easier  rate."^ 

Jacob's  criticism  of  Granville's  "  Heroick 
Love "  notes  his  observance  of  the  "  strictest 
rules  of  the  ancient  drama." 

"A  Tragedy  acted  at  the  Theatre  Royal 
with  great  applause.  This  play  is  one  of  the 
best  of  our  modern  Tragedies.  His  Lordship 
has  observed  the  strictest  rules  of  the  ancient 
Drama ;  the  Action  is  single,  the  Place  not 
varied,  nor  the  Time  extended  beyond  Aristotle's 
Bounds ;    the   whole  being  transacted   in   the 

1  Gerard  Langbaine,  "  Momus  Triumphans,"  etc.,  1688. 
Preface. 


28  THE  ENGLISH  HEROIC  PLAY 

same  Camp,  and  requiring  no  more  hours  than 
are  barely  necessary  for  the  Representation. 
He  has,  perhaps,  too  industriously  avoided  that 
crowd  of  Incident  which  the  English  Stage 
seems  to  demand.  His  Lordship  has  likewise 
broke  through  that  long  established  Custom  of 
Stabbing  and  Murdering  upon  the  Stage,  not  one 
actor  being  represented  as  dying  in  the  sight  of 
the  Audience,  which  gave  occasion  to  some  Crit- 
icks  to  except  against  it  as  Tragedy  ;  as  if 
the  fatal  and  unavoidable  necessity  of  an  Eter- 
nal separation  between  two  faithful  Lovers  was 
not  a  catastrophe  sufficiently  moving  ;  or  that 
cruel  unnatural  and  bloody  Spectacle  were  the 
Essentials  of  the  Tragedy.  His  Lordship,  in 
this  play,  seems  by  his  style  to  have  made  it  his 
chief  study  to  deliver  the  Tragick  Vein  from 
all  fustian  and  affected  Expressions  and  to  pre- 
serve the  Dignity  of  the  Buskin  from  sinking 
too  low  or  rising  too  high."  ^ 

There  are  other  laws  that  a  tragic  poet  should 
observe,  the  greater  part  of  which  were  ex- 
pressed by  Rymer.  Indeed,  the  "  Tragedies  of 
the  Last  Age  "  may  be  considered  as  a  standard 
text-book  on  the  subject.  Here  are  some  of  its 
dicta : 

"The  Fable  is  the  soul  of  a  Tragedy." 
"  The  Argument,  Plot  or  Fable  for  a  Tragedy 

»  [Giles  Jacob],  "  The  Poetical  Register,"  etc,  1723. 
i.  123. 


PLOT  29 

ought  to  be  taken  from  History."  ^  The  Eng- 
lish err  in  putting  too  wicked  persons  on  the 
stage.  2 

These  are  but  remnants  of  a  long  dramatic 
tradition,  and  do  not  pretend  to  individual 
authorship.  It  is  questionable,  however,  if 
Aristotle  would  admit  that  the  idea  that  in 
poetry  all  kings  are  necessarily  heroes  was 
based  on  the  "theory  and  practice  of  the 
ancients."  "Though  it  is  not  necessary  that 
all  heroes  should  be  Kings,  yet  undoubtedly  all 
crown'd  heads,  by  Poetical  right,  are  Heroes. 
This  Character  is  a  flower,  a  prerogative,  so 
certain,  so  indispensably  annexed  to  the  Crown 
as  by  no  Poet,  or  Parliament  of  poets,  ever  to 
be  invaded."  ^ 

There  are,  it  seems,  most  binding  laws  of  duel 
in  tragedy. 

"If  I  mistake  not,  in  Poetry  no  woman  is 
to  kill   a  man,  except   her   quality  gives   her 

1  Rymer,  Contents. 

*  Rymer,  passim.  Cf.  Jacob's  (i.  210)  criticism  of  Raven- 
croft's  "Italian  Husband  "  :  "This  poet  seems  to  be  under 
the  same  Mistake  with  some  other  of  our  modern  writers,  who 
are  fond  of  barbarous  and  bloody  Stories,  and  think  no 
Tragedy  can  be  good  without  some  Villain  in  it." 

8  Rymer,  p.  61. 


80  THE  ENGLISH  HEROIC  PLAY 

the  advantage  above  hira  ;  nor  is  a  Servant 
to  kill  the  Master,  nor  a  Private  Man,  much  less 
a  Subject  to  kill  a  King,  nor  on  the  contrary. 
Poetical  decency  will  not  suffer  death  to  be 
dealt  to  each  other,  by  such  persons  whom  the 
Laws  of  Duel  allow  not  to  enter  the  lists 
together.  There  may  be  circumstances  that 
alter  the  case,  as  where  there  is  sufficient 
ground  of  partiality  in  an  Audience,  either 
upon  the  account  of  religion  (as  Rinaldo,  or 
Riccardo,  in  Tasso,  might  kill  Soliman,  or  any 
other  Turkish  King  or  great  Sultan^  or  else  in 
favour  of  our  country,  for  then  a  private  English 
heroe  might  overcome  a  King  of  some  Rival 
Nation."! 

Rymer  is  the  laughing-stock  of  the  modern 
critical  world  —  probably  the  worst  critic  that 
ever  lived,  Macaulay  bluntly  remarks.  But  all 
that  he  said  is  of  special  and  of  great  signifi- 
cance historically,  because  it  was  supposed  both 
by  himself  and  intelligent  contemporaries  to 
rest  upon  a  learned  and  philosophic  founda- 
tion.    Dryden,  Pope,  and  Dr.  Johnson  admired 

*  Rymer,  pp.  117-118.  T.  N.  Talfourd's  comment  on 
this  passage  is  worth  quoting : 

"  How  pleasant  a  master  of  ceremonies  is  he  in  the  regions 
of  fiction,  regulating  the  niceties  of  murder  like  the  decorums 
of  a  dance,  with  an  amiable  preference  for  his  own  religion 
and  country  !  "  Retrospective  Beview,  i.  1  (1820),  "  Rymer 
on  Tragedj." 


PLOT  81 

and  respected  him.  Besides  giving  utterance 
to  principles  current  in  his  day,  he  embodied 
them  in  one  of  the  most  correct  heroic  plays 
ever  written,  and  not  only  correct  but  typical 
of  many  features  of  plot  construction  then  in 
vogue.  That  it  was  almost  worthless  as  dra- 
matic literature  in  nowise  distinguished  it  from 
many  others  of  its  kind.  Addison  called  atten- 
tion to  its  failure  as  if  that  were  unique,  for  it 
never  saw  the  light  of  day,  it  was  never  put  on 
the  stage,  it  died  as  a  living  play  before  it  was 
born.  But  neither  is  that  enough  to  distinguish 
it  from  the  others.  That  it  died  young  whereas 
the  others  survived  it  a  few  years,  and  then 
expired,  as  they  all  did  without  exception,  does 
not  make  it  different  in  kind  from  them.  It 
was  printed  in  at  least  three  different  years  ; 
as  much  cannot  be  said  of  some  of  its  apparently 
more  successful  rivals.  And,  after  all,  Rymer 
and  Addison  —  not  to  make  the  generalization 
include  others  —  were  alike  distinguished  critics 
who  wrote  plays  of  perfect  correctness  and 
lifelessness. 

On  the  whole  there  was  little  protest  against 
the  form  of  the  heroic  play,  for  it  was  a  phase 
of  the  recognized  tragic  form  of  all  Europe. 


32  THE  ENGLISH  HEROIC  PLAY 

Yet  one  author  claims  that  his  piece  is  not 
"  dress'd  by  Rules  of  Art,"  ^  and  another  makes 
a  plea  for  freedom  of  taste  even  in  the  deter- 
mination of  types  : 

"I  must  ingeniously  confess,  that  the  man- 
ner of  Plays  which  now  are  in  most  esteem, 
is  beyond  my  pow'r  to  perform ;  nor  do  I 
condemn  in  the  least  anything  of  what  Nature 
soever  that  pleases ;  since  nothing  cou'd  ap- 
pear to  me  a  ruder  folly,  than  to  censure  the 
satisfaction  of  others  ;  I  rather  blame  the  un- 
necessary understanding  of  some  that  are  not 
Mathematical,  and  with  such  eagerness,  pursu- 
ing their  own  seeming  reasons,  that  at  last  we 
are  to  apprehend  such  Argumentative  Poets 
will  grow  as  strict  as  Sancho  Pancos  Doctor 
was  to  our  very  Appetites  ;  for  in  the  differ- 
ence of  Tragedy  and  Comedy^  and  of  Fars  it  self, 
there  can  be  no  determination  but  by  the 
Taste  ;  nor  in  the  manner  of  their  Composure; 
and  whoever  wou'd  endeavour  to  like  or  dis- 
like by  the  Rules  of  others,  he  will  be  as  un- 
successful, as  if  he  should  try  to  be  persuaded 
into  a  power  of  believing  ;  not  what  he  must, 
but  what  others  direct  him  to  believe."  ^ 

To  the  statement  that  "  in  the  difference  of 
tragedy,  comedy,  and  farce  itself,  there  can 
be  no  determination  but  by  the  taste,"  Dryden 

*  "FatalJealousie."    Epilogue. 

•  "  Great  Favourite."    To  the  Reader. 


PLOT  88 

answered  :  "I  will  not  quarrel  with  the  obscur- 
ity of  his  phrase,  though  I  justly  might ;  but 
beg  his  pardon  if  I  do  not  rightly  understand 
him.  If  he  means  that  there  is  no  essential 
difference  between  comedy,  tragedy,  and  farce, 
but  what  is  made  only  by  the  people's  taste, 
which  distinguishes  one  of  them  from  the  other, 
that  is  so  manifest  an  error,  that  I  need  not 
lose  time  to  contradict  it.  Were  there  neither 
judge,  taste,  nor  opinion  in  the  world,  yet  they 
would  differ  in  their  natures."  ^ 

Howard  has  been  censured  for  both  the  tone 
and  the  content  of  his  preface,  yet  it  must  have 
been  the  expression  of  more  than  a  purely 
personal  opinion,  at  a  time  when  regularity 
was  the  school  cry  of  the  day. 

The  rank  extravagance  of  language  and  of 
character  that  predominates  in  so  many  heroic 
plays  does  not  so  frequently  belong  to  the  plot. 
The  regularity  of  the  plot  checks  such  a  ten- 
dency. There  are  some  plays  in  which  much 
takes  place,  and  the  course  of  events  seems 
unrestrained.  They  are  obviously  the  more 
conspicuous,  perhaps  the  more  interesting. 
Extravagance  in  both  characterization  and  plot 
1  Dryden,  "  A  Defence  of  an  Essay  of  Dramatic  Poesy." 


34  THE  ENGLISH  HEROIC  PLAY 

construction  makes  them  more  strikingly  heroic 
than  many  others  in  which  the  plot  is  regular 
and  stands  out  in  marked  contrast  to  tlie  ex- 
travagance of  diction  and  of  character.  There 
are  yet  others  wherein  all  the  elements  are 
subdued,  and  where  there  is  little  rant  or 
fustian,  which  are,  none  the  less  broadly  charac- 
teristic of  the  heroic  kind.  Such  is  "  Aureng- 
Zebe "  ^ ;  and  because  it  is  nearer  the  Racine 
manner,  calmer,  more  correct,  with  simpler 
plot,  and  characters  truer  to  nature,  the  super- 
natural machinery  omitted,  and  the  dialogue 
not  so  extravagant,  Holzhausen  pronounces  it 
not  typical.  ^ 

Such  another  is  "Love's  Triumph."^  No 
play  more  distinctly  shows  French  influence 
in  method  of  construction.  There  is  much  dia- 
logue of  a  sort  that  does  not  advance  the  action; 
the  situation  is  revealed  in  the  first  act,  and 
there  is  no  perceptible  progress  or  change  until 
the  last,  when  one  of  the  possible  alternatives 

1  "Aureng-Zebe,  or  the  Great  Mogul."  By  John 
Dryden.    1676. 

*  Paul  Holzhausen,  "Dryden's  Heroisches  Drama," 
♦'Englische  Studien,"  xiii.   44.3. 

•  "  Love's  Triumph,  or  the  Royal  Union."  By  Edward 
Cooke.    1678. 


PLOT  35 

takes  place.  In  "  Caligula  "  the  mildness  of 
the  plot  is  entirely  unlike  the  extravagance  of 
the  character  and  sentiment.  The  time  is 
confined  to  the  last  hour  of  the  emperor's  life, 
and  there  are  long  scenes  devoid  of  action.  In 
some  plays  the  stage  is  crowded  with  incidents 
and  characters,  in  others  it  is  bare ;  some  plots 
are  simple,  others  complex. 
•  Love  and  honor  were  theoretically  the  sub- 
jects of  heroic  plays,  and  so  in  one  form  or 
another  the  relation  between  them  may  be  sup- 
posed to  have  been  intended  as  the  leading 
dramatic  motive.  The  shape  it  assumed  varied. 
In  all  but  one  of  Orrery's  heroic  plays,  friend- 
ship is  a  form  of  honor,  and  they  are  entirely 
concerned  with  the  conflict  between  love  and 
friendship,  the  friends  being  rivals  in  love. 

A  second  form  concerns  four  people,  —  a  male 
and  female  villain,  and  a  hero  and  his  mistress. 
The  male  villain  loves  the  mistress  and  the 
female  villain  the  hero,  so  their  alliance  is 
founded  on  selfish  interest.  The  pair  of  vil- 
lains do  all  in  their  power  to  separate  the  lov- 
ers, but  each  villain  is  determined  to  defend 
the  beloved  object  from  harm,  so  they  work  at 
cross-purposes,  and  meanwhile  the   lovers  are 


36  THE  ENGLISH  HEROIC  PLAY 

safe.  In  the  end  both  villains  are  killed  by 
opportune  interference  from  outside. 

A  third  manifestation  of  the  same  idea  is 
where  the  female  villain  becomes  infatuated 
with  the  hero,  who  is  of  course  already  a  lover. 
She  offers  him  the  choice  of  reciprocating  her 
passion  or  death.  She  meets  her  fate,  likewise, 
through  external  interference  that  also  saves 
him  from  the  embarrassment  of  a  decision  ;  or 
she  may  be  so  successful  as  to  bring  about  the 
death  of  his  love,  and  possibly  that  of  himself, 
before  her  own. 

There  are  a  few  instances  where  the  conflict, 
as  to  which  of  the  rivals  will  win  the  lady,  is 
purely  physical.  Sometimes  the  subject  itself 
is  unimportant.  "Caligula,"^  for  example,  is 
mainly  an  attempted  character  study,  with 
little  plot. 

Such  are  some  of  the  main  themes,  the  raw 
material  for  a  drama.  But  the  essence  of  a 
play  is  in  struggle,  and  it  is  here  frequently 
lacking,  the  issue  is  evaded.  "Henry  V"  has 
to  do  with  love  and  honor,  and  in  the  case  of 
one  of  the  characters  there  is  what  passes  for  a 
conflict  between  them  ;  but,  such  as  it  is,  it  is 

1  "Caligula."     By  John  Crowne.     1698. 


PLOT  37 

personal,  individual,  not  influencing  the  play 
as  a  whole.  The  political  and  love  elements, 
respectively,  are  not  at  all  connected  as  con- 
tending for  the  fate  of  any  character.  Henry 
is  warrior  and  lover,  but  he  does  not  have  to 
sacrifice  one  in  order  to  be  the  other.  As  war- 
rior, he  has  no  obstacles  to  confront;  as  lover, 
but  one  (his  friend's  passion  for  the  same  lady) 
which  he  easily  surmounts.  There  is  no  dra- 
matic struggle  because  there  is  nothing  to  strug- 
gle against.  The  king  says  he  will  forego  his 
crown  before  his  love,  but  there  is  not  the  slight- 
est possibility  of  such  a  contingency  arising. 
With  Tudor,  the  conflict,  whether  or  not  he 
shall  be  true  to  his  friend  and  liege  rather  than 
to  his  love,  is  not  real.  The  choice  is  not  in 
his  hands.  He  has  been  rejected  before  the 
question  arises,  and  is  again ;  so  the  issue  is 
actually  not  whether  he  will  be  true  to  love  or 
friendship,  as  evidently  his  author  and  himself 
desire  it  construed,  but  rather  how  manfully  he 
will  bear  up  under  adversity  in  love.  The  real 
struggle  has  been  done  away  with  by  the  prin- 
cess's preference  for  the  king.  Such  is  also  the 
case  in  "  Tryphon  "  ^  with  Seleucus,  an  unsuc- 

1  "Tryphon."    By  Roger  Boyle,  Earl  of  Orrery.     1669. 


38  THE  ENGLISH  HEROIC  PLAY 

cessful  suitor  who  decides  to  force  the  object  of 
his  affection  to  marry  him  ;  but  there  is  no 
instance  of  a  girl  deciding  in  the  first  act  not 
to  marry  a  man  ever  after  changing  her  mind, 
or  being  made  to  do  so. 

.  Constancy  between  the  principal  lovers  of  a 
/play  is  practically  invariable,  and  although  the 
dramatic  motive  springs  from  the  attempt  of  a 
jealous  third  person  to  win  away  the  love  of  one 
of  them,  the  initial  and  paramount  error  of  all 
such  persons  arises  from  their  belief,  taken  for 
granted,  that  the  fear  of  death  will  induce 
lovers  to  part,  and  win  them  toward  other 
loves;  nor  would  the  doing  away  of  one  of 
the  lovers  in  any  wise  make  the  coast  easy 
and  clear  for  his  hated  rival;  as  for  the 
threat  of  death,  there  is  no  more  oft-reiterated 
note  in  the  heroic  kind  than  indifference  tow- 
ard or  even  desire  for  death.  The  lovers 
are  given  the  choice  of  dying  together  or 
living  apart;  they  decide  on  the  former;  but 
it  is  a  matter  of  words;  they  are  not  put  to 
the  test. 

On  the  issue  of  probability  there  was  differ- 
ence of  opinion.  For  its  sake,  Rymer  advo- 
cated  adherence    to   history  : 


PLOT  89 

"  We  generally  observe,  when  one  tells  of 
an  adventure,  or  but  a  jest,  he  will  choose  to 
father  it  on  some  one  that  is  known  thereby 
to  get  attention,  and  gain  more  credit  to  what 
lie  relates.  Besides,  many  things  are  probable 
of  Antoninus,  or  of  Alexander,  and  particular 
men,  because  they  are  true,  which  cannot  be 
generally  probable :  and  he  that  will  be  feigning 
persons  should  confine  his  fancy  to  general 
probability."  ^ 

This  is  one  way,  and  there  are  some  heroic 
plays  that  did  not  violate  the  dictum.  On  the  ' 
other  hand,  Dryden  ^  differentiated  heroic  plays 
from  other  tragedies  in  that  they  were  not  sub- 
ject to  the  laws  of  probability.  It  is  by  this 
very  disregard  of  necessary  sequence  that  a 
large  number  of  heroic  plays  differ  from  genu- 
ine dramas.^ 

There  is  only  one  of  Dryden's  heroic  plays 

1  Rymer,  p.  17. 

2  His  own  dramatic  irresponsibility  is  shown  by  his  deem- 
ing it  necessary  to  print  for  distribution  and  circulation  in 
the  audience  an  explanation  of  one  of  his  plays,  the  "Ind- 
ian Emperor,"  where  the  play  failed  to  explain  itself. 

8  Orrery,  when  the  long  letter  he  inserted  in  the  "Black 
Prince  "  was  hissed,  had  it  printed  and  copies  handed  to  the 
spectators.  The  boldest  disregard  of  a  necessary  dramatic 
sequence,  however,  is  in  the  "Vestal  Virgin,"  which  has 
two  last  acts,  one  comic,  the  other  tragic,  either  of  which 
was  substituted  for  the  other  at  will. 


40  THE  ENGLISH  HEROIC  PLAY 

where  a  single  dramatic  idea  is  carried  out.* 
What  is  to  be  expected,  therefore,  of  lesser 
men  ?  Of  what  consequence  in  comparison  with 
the  radical  fault  of  the  lack  of  a  single  dramatic 
idea,  and  of  total  disregard  of  dramatic  respon- 
sibility are  all  other  defects  of  plot  construc- 
tion ?  2  Vain  is  the  search  for  inherent  relation 
between  plot  and  character.     A  study  of  the 

1  "  Tyrannic  Love."    Cf.  Holzhausen,  E.  S.,  xiii.  432. 

'  Such  defects  are  naturally  numerous,  and  some  of  them 
were  first  commented  on  by  the  authors  themselves.  Otway 
writes  of  his  first  play :  "I  found  myself  father  of  a  dramatic 
birth  which  I  called  '  Alcibiades'  (1675)  ;  but  I  might,  with- 
out offence  to  any  person  in  the  play,  as  well  have  called  it 
'Nebuchadnezzar.'"  (Preface  to  "Don  Carlos.")  Ward 
likens  its  plot  to  a  nightmare. 

The  weakness  of  the  plot  of  the  "Maiden  Queen"  is 
suggested  in  the  Preface  to  that  play,  and  commented  on 
by  Ward.  The  same  critic  speaks  of  the  absence  of  combi- 
nation of  external  and  intrinsic  interest  in  "  Don  Carlos." 
The  weakness  of  the  plot  of  "  Caligula  "  is  noted  by  Maid- 
ment  and  Logan,  and  that  of  "Mustapha"  by  Dry  den. 
Jacob  calls  attention  to  the  plot  absurdities  in  the  "  State 
of  Innocence." 

Notice  further  the  sudden  transformation  from  the  usurp- 
ing king  to  the  kindly  father-in-law  in  "  Marriage-a-la-Mode," 
the  unfortunate  title  of  "  Sophonisba,  or  Hannibal's  Over- 
throw," inasmuch  as  Sophonisba  had  nothing  to  do  with 
Hannibal's  overthrow.  In  fact,  Massinissa,  as  an  ally  of 
Scipio,  was  the  chief  factor  in  bringing  about  Hannibal's 
defeat ;  and  Sophonisba's  conquest  over  him  took  him  from 
battle  and  thus  increased  Hannibal's  chances  of  success. 


PLOT  41 

plot  in  Restoration  tragedy  is  a  study  of  exter- 
nals. The  raw  material  was  imported  and 
manipulated  by  novices  who  had  a  text-book 
knowledge  of  the  subject,  without  the  slightest 
comprehension  of  the  relation  between  external 
and  internal  form. 


CHAPTER  III 

CHAEACTER 

One  of  the  most  obvious  differences  between 
the  Elizabethan  and  Restoration  drama — a  phase 
of  the  movement  toward  greater  external  unity 
—  is  in  the  variety  of  characters.  The  strongest 
indication  that  the  Restoration  plays  were  to  be 
more  limited  in  character  range  than  the  earlier 
is  that  there  were  fewer  characters  to  deal  with. 
Narrow  range  does  not  necessarily  follow  as  a 
result  of  the  small  number  of  characters  in  sev- 
eral plays  of  the  same  period,  any  more  than  a 
limited  vocabulary  necessarily  implies  a  con- 
tracted mind.  But  words  beget  thoughts  as 
truly  as  thoughts  beget  words.  It  is  not  by 
accident  that  Shakespeare's  wealth  of  thought 
is  expressed  in  the  largest  vocabulary  ever  used, 
and  the  bare  fact  that  his  dramatis  personce, 
are  great  in  number  suggests,  if  it  does  not 
indirectly  state,  that  the  variety  is  proportion- 
ately considerable.  In  Orrery's  "  Henry  V  " 
42 


CHARACTER  48 

there  are  nineteen  names  in  the  cast,  in  Shake- 
speare twenty-seven  (omitting  the  chorus)  ;  in 
Caryl's  "English  Princess,  or  the  Death  of 
Richard  III,"  there  are  seventeen;  in  the  cor- 
responding tragedy  of  Shakespeare,  thirty-five ; 
and  in  Sedley's  "  Antony  and  Cleopatra "  ^ 
fourteen,  where  Shakespeare  has  thirty-one. 
The  average  number  of  speaking  characters 
in  Restoration  tragedy  is  not  more  than 
fourteen,  not  much  more  than  half  the  usual 
number  in  Shakespeare.  The  confinement  of 
the  character  element  in  the  later  drama 
within  a  circumscribed  compass  is,  then,  patent. 
Attention  is  concentrated  on  a  smaller  picture, 
and  the  search  for  Elizabethan  multifarious- 
ness is  futile.  It  is  claimed  that  a  limited 
vocabulary  possesses  a  peculiar  strength,  and  it 
might  be  inferred  that  the  stream  of  energy 
is  the  same  in  either  case ;  that  it  is  merely 
a  question  whether  to  allow  it  to  flow  over 
a  wide  expanse  or  to  confine  it  in  a  narrower 
channel,  thus  intensifying  its  force ;  that  the 
change  from  many  characters  to  a  less  number 
brings   about  a  closer  attention,   and   hence  a 

1"  Antony  and  Cleopatra."      By  Sir  Charles  Sedley. 
1677. 


44  THE  ENGLISH  HEROIC  PLAY 

more  careful  consideration  of  the  remainder; 
that  what  these  characters  lack  in  variety  they 
make  up  in  quality.  Whether  or  not  in  the 
abstract  this  assumption  be  permissible,  it  is 
certainly  unwarrantable  in  its  present  connec- 
tion. The  characters  that  were  drawn,  and 
that  were  in  a  sense  so  popular  as  to  be  many 
times  repeated  or  imitated,  are  not  compar- 
able to  the  figures  of  the  older  time. 

Did  the  Restoration  dramatists  fail  in  char- 
acter delineation  through  inability,  or  rather 
because  they  had  another  object  in  view  than 
the  painting  of  men  and  women,  and  purposely 
relegated  that  part  of  their  work  to  an  unim- 
portant place,  if  they  did  not  disregard  it 
entirely?  What,  in  its  relation  to  character, 
was  the  intent  of  the  heroic  play?  Not  surely 
to  paint  men  as  they  are  in  the  flesh  ;  such 
an  assertion  was  but  a  form  of  flattering  the 
audience. 

"  Tis  ten  to  one  but  th'  Author  still  will  say, 
Your  vertues  were  the  patterns  of  his  play ; 
And  swear  you  down, 

His  Love  aud  Honour  both  were  stol'n  from  you ; 
And  from  your  features  he  his  Heroes  drew. 
There's  ne'er  a  Comick  Writer  but  will  say, 
You're  all  of  you  the  patterns  of  his  Flay ; 


CHARACTER  45 

Yet  takes  your  pictures  at  so  damn'd  a  light ; 
Paints  you  so  ugly  that  your  looks  would  fright. 
Why  in  your  hearts  may  not  th'  Heroicks  share? 
Those  make  you  worse,  these  better  than  you  are. 
And  flatterers  sure  should  not  successless  prove, 
When  those  that  do  abuse  you  have  your  love."  ^ 

But  it  was  ,the  business  of  the  heroic  drama, 
as  of  other  forms  of  tragedy,  to  paint  men 
"  better  than  they  are " ;  and  the  distinction 
between  the  Elizabethan  and  the  later  manner 
was  not  one  of  observance  of  the  dictum,  but 
of  interpretation.  Hamlet  thinks  deeper  and 
feels  more  keenly  than  an  everyday  man;  but 
the  operation  of  his  mind  and  heart  is  thoroughly 
normal,  in  that  it  is  perfectly  human.  In  no 
regard  is  it  superhuman.  In  all  cases  the 
Shakespearean  meaning  of  painting  a  man  better 
than  others  or  superior  to  others  is  spiritual 
as  opposed  to  physical  and  material;  the 
accentuation  of  certain  purely  human  qualities 
is  what  constitutes  the  Shakespearean  hero; 
how  much  land  he  owns,  or  how  much  mus- 
cular strength  he  has,  does  not  matter. 
There  is  verbal  evidence  also  of  the  spiritual 

1 "  Ibrahim,  the  Illustrious  Bassa."  By  Elkanah  Settle. 
1677.    Epilogue. 


46  THE   ENGLISH  HEROIC  PLAY 

aspect,  in  Restoration  drama,  of  the  elemental 
passions,  greatly  overcolored,  to  be  sure. 

"  Love  rages  in  great  souls, 
For  there  his  power  njost  opposition  finds ; 
High  trees  are  shook,  because  they  dare  the  winds."* 

It  is  taken  for  granted    that  only  in    the 

higher     spheres    of    life    is   the   exaltation   of 

love  and  war  possible: 

"  The  lover  and  the  brave 
Are  ranked,  at  least,  above  the  vulgar  slave ; "  ' 

and  also  of  prudence  and  the  sense  of  glory,  — 

"  Where  is  that  harmony  of  mind,  that  prudence. 
Which  guided  all  you  did  ?  that  sense  of  glory. 
Which  raised  you  high  above  the  rest  of  kings, 
As  kings  are  o'er  the  level  of  mankind  ?  "  ^ 

In  the  last  two  lines  may  be  found  the  key  to 
the  first  point  of  departure  from  the  Shake- 
spearean standard  in  post-Elizabethan  and 
Carolean  art, — an  attempt  at  first  not  so  much 
to  introduce  new  features  as  to  magnify  through 
exaggeration  certain  human  qualities  to  an 
extent  hitherto  untried  and  unprecedented, 
and  soon  pushed    to   the    impossible    because 

1  "  Secret  Love,  or  the  Maiden  Queen. "    By  John  Dryden. 
1608.    Act  2,  Sc.  1. 

a  "  Conquest  of  Granada,"  Part  2,  Act  4,  Sc.  3. 
»  "  Maiden  Queen,"  Act  2,  Sc.  L 


CHARACTER  47 

beyond  nature.  The  extravagance  of  tlie 
later  Elizabethan  and  early  post-Elizabethan 
drama,  begun  in  Shakespeare's  own  day,  sug- 
gests whither  things  were  drifting;  but  the 
tendency  does  not  appear  to  have  been  for- 
mulated, recognized,  and  championed  as  a 
laudable  principle  till  Dryden  wrote  that  "  the 
laws  of  an  heroic  poem"  justified  "drawing 
all  things  as  far  above  the  ordinary  propor- 
tion of  the  stage  as  that  is  beyond  the  common 
words  and  actions  of  human  life."^  Magnify- 
ing all  things  did  not  lead  to  a  nicer  and  subtler 
working-over  of  old  material,  but  to  an  ille- 
gitimate introduction  of  new  things ;  it  encour- 
aged extraneousness,  put  a  premium  on  the 
irrelevant,  and  distracted  attention  from  the 
character  itself  to  physical  qualities  and  to  ma- 
terial wealth.  The  idea  was  old  on  the  Conti- 
nent, but  its  application  was  an  innovation  in 
English  dramatic  literature.  Dryden  endeavors 
to  justify  from  history  his  treatment  of  physical 
prowess : 

"  But  we  have  read  both  of  Csesar,  and  many 
other  generals,  who  have  not  only  calmed  a 
mutiny  with  a  word,  but  have  presented  them- 

1  John  Dryden,  "  Essay  on  Heroic  Plays."     1672. 


48  THE  ENGLISH  HEROIC  PLAY 

selves  single  before  an  army  of  their  enemies ; 
which  upon  sight  of  them  has  revolted  from 
their  own  leaders,  and  come  over  to  their 
trenches.  If  the  history  of  the  late  Duke  of 
Guise  be  true,  he  hazarded  more  and  performed 
not  less  in  Naples,  than  Almanzor  is  feigned  to 
have  done  in  Granada."  * 

The  physical  properties  of  a  hero  are  marvel- 
lous.    He  is  indeed  a  full-blooded  pei-son  : 

"  Let  the  blind  Queen  of  Chance  her  Envy  shew, 
And  save  thy  life  by  some  successless  blow  ; 
Deny'd  all  help,  and  pass'd  defence  withstood, 
I'll  rip  my  breast,  and  drown  thee  with  my  blood."  ' 

Combating  single-handed  an  army  or  two  is 
but  a  mild  form  of  pleasant  recreation;  and 

"  Those  few  million  we've  yet  vanquish't  are 
A  bare  dumb  shew  of  a  poor  pageant  war."  • 

But  the  strangest  feature  of  his  strength  is 
that  it  does  not  leave  the  body  with  death, 
but  his  ghost  continues  the  even  tenor  of  his 
muscular  way. 

"  If  Souls  can  fight,  I  thee  to  Battle  dare, 
And  mine  shall  hence  only  to  meet  thee  there."* 

1  Dryden,  "  Essay  on  Heroic  Plays." 
«  "  Siege  of  Memphis,"  Act  1,  Sc.  2. 

•  "Conquest  of  China,"  Act  1,  Sc.  1. 

*  "  Herod  and  Mariamue."    By  Samuel  Pordage.    1673. 
Act  6,  Sc.  7. 


CHARACTER  49 

"Revenging   still,   and  following  ev'n  to  the  other 
world  my  blow ; 
And  shoving  this  earth  on  which  I  sit, 
I'll  mount  and  scatter  all  the  Gods  I  hit."^ 

Worldly  possessions  as  an  attribute  of  majesty 
is  frequently  the  opening  theme  of  a  play. 
Thus  begins  Weston's  "  Amazon  Queen  "  : 

"  'Tis  time  our  King  leave  his  bold  chace  of  Fame, 
Now  nothing  more  can  add  to  his  great  name ; 
He  has  no  foes  like  great  Darius  left, 
Whom  he  of  more  than  half  the  world  bereft."  * 

And  thus  Banks's  "  Rival  Kings  " : 

"  From  Ganges,  and  beyond  Nyle's  secret  Bed, 
Strange  conquer'd  nations  have  Euphrates  spread, 
By  Heaven's  eternal  power  ordained  to  meet 
In  the  World's  center,  and  its  Royal  seat. 
From  other  Parts  whilest  succours  bend  their  course. 
You  bring  from  Greece,  the  Foot  to  re-inforce, 
And  I  from  Thrace,  five  thousand  Winged  horse. 
So  the  great  Sea  maintains  its  swelling  Pride 
By  lesser  streams  that  thither  daily  glide; 
All  things  contribute  to  this  mighty  King, 
To  Alexander  flowing,  leave  their  Spring, 
And  aids  from  the  remotest  places  bring."  ' 

1  "  Tyrannic  Love,  or  the  Royal  Martyr."  By  John 
Dry  den.     1670.     Act  5,  Sc.  1. 

*  "Amazon  Queen,"  Act  1,  Sc.  1. 
»  "Rival  Kings,"  Act  1,  Sc.  1. 


60  THE  ENGLISH  HEUOIC  PLAY" 

Greater  than  this  is  to  come : 

"  The  Conquerours  of  Persia,  Macedon, 
The  Ijords  of  Caesars  reverence  my  Throne ; 
Clear  from  the  rising  to  the  setting  sun ; 
What  Alexander  ne'er  could  reach,  I  won." 

And  he  is  answered : 

"  Sir,  from  Japan  to  the  A  tlantic  Main, 
The  World  lies  fetter'd  in  your  glorious  chain 
Whose  Light  and  Influence  in  the  Heavens  is  felt, 
As  upon  Earth  the  spangled  Milky  belt."  ^ 

And  himself  proclaims : 

"Had  Ca:sar  liv'd  I  had  taught  that  Rebel  Peace; 
And  lash'd  the  stragling  Demi-God  to  Greece.''^  * 

And  — 

"  The  trembling  World  has  shook  at  my  alarms, 
Asia  and  Africa  have  felt  my  arms. 
My  glorious  Conquests  too  did  farther  flye ; 
I  taught  the  Egyptian  god  Mortality ; 
By  me  great  Apis  fell,  and  now  you  see 
They  are  compelled  to  change  their  gods  for  me. 
I  have  done  deeds,  where  Heaven's  high  pow'r 

was  foyl'd. 
Piercing  those  Rocks  where  Thunder  has  been  toyl'd. 
Now,  like  our  sun,  when  there  remains  no  more. 
Thither  return  whence  we  set  out  before." 

»  "  Sacrifice,"  Act  1,  Sc.  1. 
8  Ibid. 


CHARACTER  51 

"  Otan.   Returning  thus,  Great  Sir,  you  have  out-done 
All  other  glories,  which  your  arms  have  won. 
Inferiour  Conquerours  their  Triumphs  get 
When  they  advance,  but  you  when  you  retreat. 

Dar.   All  Worthies  now  must  yield  to  you  alone, 
And  disappear  as  stars  before  the  Sun. 
Thus  Cyrus,  who  all  Asia  did  defeat, 
Because  so  near  you,  does  not  seem  so  great. 

Prex.    Cambyses,  no  ;  Your  Honour  there  must  yield ; 
Your  father  Cyrus's  fame  has  yours  excell'd 
Since  in  one  act  he  did  all  yours  out-do, 
In  leaving  such  a  glorious  Son  as  you."  ^ 

But  if  Caligula  be  as  truthful  as  he  is  hopeful, 
he  certainly  of  all  rulers  had  the  greatest  do- 
main: 

•'  I  reign  from  Heav'n  to  hell ;  —  perhaps  beyond. "  ' 

The  exaggeration  of  human  qualities  and  the 
introduction  of  externals  were  intended,  doubt- 
less, to  increase  the  "  illustriousness,"  as  it  were, 
of  the  character  ;  to  make  the  hero  more  heroic, 
to  delineate  him  as  "perfect  pattern  of  heroic 
virtues,"^  and  pattern  "of  exact  virtues."* 
The  word  "  pattern  "  —  anything  proposed  for 
imitation,  or  what  is  itself  made  after  a  model 
—  thrice  employed  by  Dryden  in  description  of 

1  "  Cambyses,"  Act  1,  Sc,  1.       2  u  Caligula,"  Act  4. 
*  Diydeu,  "  Essay  on  Heroic  Plays."  *  Ibid. 


52  THE  ENGLISH   HEROIC   PLAY 

his  own  creations,  indicates  the  absence  of  in- 
dividualization ;  it  presupposes,  invites,  and 
facilitates  the  process  of  classification.  There 
was  little  or  no  attempt  to  draw  men  and 
women,  but  rather  to  present  abstract  human 
qualities.  There  is  further  evidence  in  Lang- 
baine's  remark  on  Orrery's  dramatic  works, 
where  attention  is  called  to  the  quality  depicted 
rather  than  to  the  personality  of  the  character. 
In  them,  he  writes,  is  "  true  English  courage 
delineated  to  the  life."  ^  From  Otway's  words 
also  it  is  plain  that  the  hero  was  looked  upon 
as  the  embodiment  of  heroic  virtues,  and  the 
dramatist  considered  their  quality  and  quantity 
rather  than  —  and  at  the  expense  of  —  per- 
sonality. 

"  I  durst  presume  to  put  this  poem  under  your 
patronage  .  .  .  for  .  .  .  the  mighty  encourage- 
ment I  have  received  from  your  approbation  of 
it  when  presented  on  the  stage  was  hint  enough 
to  let  me  know  at  whose  feet  it  ought  to  be  laid. 
Yet,  ...  I  am  sensible  the  curious  world  will 
expect  some  panegyric  on  those  heroic  virtues 
which  are  throughout  it  so  much  admired."  ^ 

^  Langbaine,  p.  27. 

«  "  Don  Carlos,  Prince  of  Spain."  By  Thomas  Otway. 
1676.     Dedication. 


CHARACTER  53 

The  lack  of  diversity  in  the  types  has  been 
contrasted  with  Shakespearean  richness.  The 
exuberance  of  character  of  the  Elizabethan 
stage  passed  away.  The  mirror  of  life  held 
up  to  nature,  re-creating  the  human  family  in 
all  its  phases  of  mental  and  moral  develop- 
ment, of  rank  and  fortune,  was  exchanged  for 
another  of  different  make  and  for  a  different 
purpose.  The  play-scene  was  robbed  of  its 
wealth,  left  poor  and  comparatively  bare. 
Impoverishment  was  brought  about  by  the 
extensive  reduction  in  the  number  of  charac- 
ters, with  its  attendant  omission  of  certain 
phases  of  life  exemplified  in  certain  creations, 
and  by  the  transformation  or  substitution,  or 
both,  of  the  remainder.  For  the  stage  was 
far  poorer  than  the  mere  cutting  down  by 
half,  or  even  more,  of  Shakespearean  characters 
would  have  left  it,  if  the  other  half  had  re- 
mained in  nature  Shakespearean.  Shakespeare 
never  duplicates  characters.  But  the  Restora- 
tion dramatists  frequently  copied  theirs.  The 
characters  became  conventionalized  to  such  an 
extent  as  to  be  but  faintly  distinguishable  one 
from  another.  This  obviously  rendered  the 
stage  poorer  than  it  would  have  been  simply 
through  omissions. 


64  THE  ENGLISH  HEROIC  PLAY 

The  heroic  drama  proper  admitted  no  comic 
element  and  excluded  all  classes  of  society 
except  the  nobility.  This  wholesale  process  of 
exclusion  did  away  with  the  clown  in  his  various 
/roles,  and  all  smile-evoking  wit;  and  under  the 
latter  head  representatives  of  the  people  and 
mobs  (pageants  were  retained,  but  no  mobs), 
all  trades-people,  —  in  brief,  whatsoever  in  the 
exact  sense  was  uncourtly;  and  intellectually 
and  emotionally,  all  characters  of  introspection 
and  true  passion.^ 

The  leading  type  of  the  heroic  play  may  be 
seen  in  Antony,  Richmond,  and  Henry  V.,  as 
'K  drawn  by  Sedley,  Caryl,  and  Orrery,  but  Alman- 
zor  is  more  complete,  depicted  with  greater  detail 
and  more  brilliantly.  Therefore  a  rehearsal  of 
his  characteristics  seems  desirable,  especially  as 
he  is  the  acknowledged  example,  par  excellence^ 
of  the  kind  he  represents,  — the  "echte  blume,"^ 
as  Holzhausen  calls  him,  of  the  heroic  manner, 
and  its  "  most  complete  expression  in  Dryden."  ^ 
His  first  entrance  indicates  the  manner  of  man. 
The  first  line  shows  his  entire  indifference  to 
justice  ;   he  has  no  idea  of  right  and  wrong. 

^  See  Appendix  B.  ^  Holzhausen,  E.  S.,  xiii.  432. 

•  Ibid.  XV.  44. 


CHARACTER  65 

The  second  discloses  a  desire  to  relieve  the 
oppressed,  —  a  desire,  however,  without  depth 
or  catholicity.  He  rushes  on  the  stage  where 
there  are  two  men  ready  to  engage,  and  sepa- 
rates them  with  these  words : 

"  I  cannot  stay  to  ask  which  cause  is  best ; 
But  this  is  so  to  me  because  opprest."  ^ 

He  next  describes  a  line  with  his  sword  and 
forbids  trespassing. 

"  Upon  thy  life  pass  not  this  middle  space ; 
Sure  death  stands  guarding  the  forbidden  place."  " 

Here  is  the  modern  melodramatic  hero,  —  the 
"  halt-or-I-shoot "  sort.  He  is  dared,  kills,  is 
disarmed,  and  threatened  with  death.  He  re- 
plies that  he  scorns  life,  but  denies  the  right 
of  any  one  but  himself  to  take  it  away. 

1  "  Conquest  of  Granada,"  Pt.  1,  Act  1,  Sc.  1.  Cf.  "  Don 
Carlos"  (Act  4,  Sc.  1),  vrho,  when  asked  if  he  will  go  over 
to  the  rebels,  replies : 

"  No,  they're  friends ;  their  cause  is  just ; 
Or,  when  I  make  it  mine,  at  least  it  must." 

2  Ibid.  Perhaps  the  most  familiar  illustration  of  this 
device  is  the  "magic  circle"  in  Bulwer's  "Richelieu." 
There  is  no  doubt  of  its  theatrical  effectiveness. 


r^ 


66  THE  ENGLISH  HEROIC  PLAY 

"  But  know  that  I  alone  am  king  of  me, 
I  am  as  free  as  nature  first  made  man, 
Ere  the  base  laws  of  servitude  began, 
When  wild  in  woods  the  noble  savage  ran,"  * 

and  nonchalantly  defies  the  death  sentence : 
"  Stand  off,  I  have  not  leisure  yet  to  die."  * 

He  has  previously  told  the  king  that  they 
ought  to  change  positions, — i.e.  that  he  him- 
self should  "  in  nature  "  have  the  throne. 

"  I  saw  the  oppressed,  and  thought  it  did  belong 
To  a  king's  office  to  redress  the  wrong ; 
I  brought  that  succour  which  thou  oughtst  to  bring, 
And  so,  in  nature,  am  thy  subjects'  king."  ' 

This  passage  also  reveals  a  leaning  to  sophistry, 
—  to  "  argumentation  in  verse,"  as  Dr.  Garnett 
puts  it,  —  chronic  with  Dryden,  and  common 
among  his  fellows. 

Almanzor  is  thus  described  ; 

"  Vast  is  his  courage,  boundless  is  his  mind, 
Rough  as  a  storm  and  humorous  as  wind; 

1  "  Conquest  of  Granada,"  Pt.  1,  Act  1,  Sc.  1.  The 
doctrine  of  the  "  return  to  nature,"  popularly  associated 
with  Rousseaur  was  by  no  means  an  uncommon  note  in 
English  Restoration  literature.  For  other  instances  in  prose 
and  verse,  see  Mrs.  Behn's  "  Oroonoko,"  1668,  passim,  and 
Otway's  «'  Don  Carlos,"  Act  2. 

*  Ibid.  •  Ibid. 


CHARACTER  67 

Honour's  the  only  idol  of  his  eyes ; 
The  charms  of  beauty,  like  a  pest,  he  flies ; 
And  raised  by  valour  from  a  birth  unknown 
Acknowledges  no  power  above  his  own."  ^ 

His  courage  is  indeed  vast;  it  is  prodigious. 
He  is  also  humorous  as  the  wind,  —  capricious, 
admitting  no  law  superior  to  himself.  Honor, 
such  as  it  was,  is  somewhat  in  evidence.  Prac- 
tically, however,  it  is  about  as  deep  as  the 
desire  to  help  the  oppressed.  But  the  whole 
description  gives  a  very  incomplete  picture,  and 
the  line  about  running  away  from  the  charms 
of  beauty  is  misleading,  because  it  omits  the 
very  quiddity  of  the  character,  if  it  stands  for 
the  type,  for,  above  all  else,  he  is  a  lover.  His 
true  identity  (not  his  birth)  is  then  made 
known  to  the  king,  who  revokes  the  sentence 
and  asks  his  aid.  The  king  addresses  his  sub- 
jects and  is  unheeded,  whereupon  Almanzor 
speaks  and  all  obey  his  bidding.  They  do  this 
so  readily  that  he  has  a  chance  to  indulge  his 
contempt  for  the  common  people. 

"  Hence,  you  unthinking  crowd ! 
Empire,  thou  poor  and  despicable  thing, 
When  such  as  these  make  or  unmake  a  king ! "  ' 

1  Jbid.  2  Ibid. 


68  THE  ENGLISH  HEROIC  PLAY 

Such  is  his  thought,  but  the  wonder  of  his 
action  impresses  the  by-standers. 

"  How  much  of  virtue  lies  in  one  great  soul, 
Whose  single  force  can  multitudes  control !  "  * 

Almanzor  bids  his  new-found  friends  not  to 
worry,  because 

"  The  Moors  have  heaven  and  me  t'  assist  their  cause."  * 

He  comes  on  the  stage  with  the  Duke  of  Arcos, 
the  Moors'  enemy,  a  prisoner,  and  says  he  will 
set  him  free,  in  order  that  he  may  fight  him 
again,  for  he  enjoys  fighting. 

"  It  pleases  me  your  army  is  so  g^at ; 
For  now  I  know  there's  more  to  conquer  yet. 

I'll  go,  and  instantly  acqiiaint  the  king, 
And  sudden  orders  for  thy  freedom  bring. 
Thou  canst  not  be  so  pleased  at  liberty 
As  I  shall  be  to  find  thou  darest  be  free."  ' 

This  the  king  refuses  to  do,  which  puts  Al- 
manzor in  an  agreeable  mood  to  hearken  to 
Abdalla,  the  king's  brother,  and  aspirant  to  the 
throne. 

1  "  Conquest  of  Granada,"  Pt.  1,  Act  1,  Sc.  1. 

a  Ibid. 

»  Ibid.  Pt.  1,  Act  2,  Sc.  1. 


CHARACTER  59 

"  When  I  show  my  title  you  shall  see 
I  have  a  better  right  to  reign  than  he."  * 

Almanzor  straightway  declares  himself  Ab- 
dalla's  friend,  and  his  friendship  is  like  his 
helping  the  weaker  side,  it  disregards  title  and 
justice. 

"  It  is  sufficient  that  you  make  the  claim ; 
You  wrong  our  friendship  when  your  right  you  name. 
When  for  myself  I  fight,  I  weigh  the  cause, 
But  friendship  will  admit  of  no  such  laws; 

True,  I  would  wish  my  friend  the  juster  side ; 
But,  in  the  unjust,  my  kindness  more  is  tried."  ' 

"  For  you  to  will,  for  me  'tis  to  obey."  ' 

In  the  first  love  scene  between  the  principal 
characters  both  fall  in  love  at  first  sight,  the 
lover  more  noticeably,  and  he  is  affected  in 
the  conventional  manner. 

"  I  fear  it  is  the  lethargy  of  love ! 
'Tis  he  ;  I  feel  him  now  in  every  part ; 
Like  a  new  lord  he  vaunts  about  my  heart ; 

1^        *****        * 

I'm  all  o'er  love ; 
Nay,  I  am  love ;  love  shot,  and  shot  so  fast 
He  shot  himself  into  my  breast  at  last."  * 

1  Ibid.  Pt.  1,  Act  3,  Sc.  1.       «  Ibid.       «  Ibid.      *  Ibid. 


60  THE  ENGLISH  HEROIC  PLAY 

His  behavior  in  its  formalism  and  elaboration 
would  appear  to  discredit  his  own  words  : 

"  'Tis  the  essay  of  an  untaught  first  love."  * 

But  it  is  difficult  in  more  ways  than  one  to 
regard  him  as  he  regards  himself. 

**  But  all  court  customs  I  so  little  know,"  ' 

he  says.  Once  before  he  has  suggested  a  like- 
ness between  himself  and  "  the  noble  savage." 
He  is  a  quibbler,  and  the  fact  that  Aim  abide 
is  already  contracted  to  Boabdelin  disconcerts 
him  but  a  moment. 

"  I  bring  a  claim  which  does  his  right  remove ; 
You're  his  by  promise,  but  you're  mine  by  love. 
'Tis  all  but  ceremony  which  is  past ; 
The  knot's  to  tie  which  is  to  make  you  fast. 
Fate  gave  not  to  Boabdelin  that  power ; 
He  wooed  you  but  as  my  ambassador."  « 

She  is  his  captive  by  the  right  of  war,  but  he 
disdains  to  keep  her,  and  declares  her  free ; 

1  "  Conquest  of  Granada,"  Pt.  1,  Act  3,  Sc.  1. 
« Ibid,  rt  2,  Act  6,  Sc.  2.  «  Ibid. 


CHARACTER  61 

and  when  asked  if  such  action  does  not  show 
generosity  but  also  lack  of  love,  he  replies, 

"  'Tis  exalted  passion,  when  I  show 
I  dare  be  wretched  not  to  make  her  so ;  "  ^ 

and  that  he  had  rather  be  entirely  wretched 
than  half  blest  while  another  passion  fills  her 
heart. 

He  next  meets  Abdalla,  and  has  an  oppor- 
tunity to  practise  the  friendship  which  be  has 
already  expounded.  But  when  he  learns 
Abdalla  loves  Almahide,  all  friendship  dis- 
appears ;  and  because  Abdalla  does  not  yield, 
Almanzor  thinks  him  ungrateful  and  himself 
wronged,  and  so  returns  to  the  other  side,  and 
explains  his  shifting  thus  : 

*'  Great  souls  by  kindness  only  can  be  tied  ; 
Injured  again,  again  I'll  leave  your  side."  * 

Almanzor  has  told  Almahide  that  she  is  at 
liberty.  Just  as  his  behavior  belied  his  prin- 
ciples in  loyalty  and  friendship,  so  when  asked 
again  if  she  is  free,  he  answers, 

"  Madam,  you  are,  from  all  the  world,  —  but  me ! " 

1  Ibid.  2  75tu  pt.  1,  Act  4,  Sc.  1. 

» Ibid.  Pt.  1,  Act  4,  Sc.  2. 


eS  THE  ENGLISH  HEROIC  PLAT 

She  yields  willingly  to  be  his,  if  she  can  do  so 
with  propriety  ;  but  she  asks  her  lover  to  carry 
himself  a  little  more  humbly,  with  not  quite  so 
much  fierceness.  He  comforts  her  by  saying 
that  he  can  beg  when  the  time  requires,  but 
really  the  time  never  does  require.  If,  in  order 
to  make  her  father  perfectly  content  with  the 
match,  nothing  but  a  country  to  rule  over  is 
wanted,  matters  can  be  easily  arranged. 

"  And  if  your  father  will  require  a  crown, 
Let  him  but  name  the  kingdom,  'tis  his  own."  ^ 

He  is  but  remaining  for  the  time  being  a 
private  man  only  because  he  wants  to  do  so, 
for  he  says  he  has  "  that  soul  which  empires 
first  began,"  consequently, 

"  The  best  and  bravest  souls  I  can  select, 
And  on  their  conquered  necks  my  throne  erect"  ' 

He   admits  he 

"  Twice  has  changed  for  wrongs  received,"  • 

but  defends  his  haughtiness  against  his  love's 
suggestion  to  moderate  it. 

1  "  Conquest  of  Granada,"  Pt.  1,  Act  4,  Sc.  2. 
»  Ibid.  •  Ibid.  Pt  2,  Act  3,  Sc.  3. 


CHARACTER  63 

"  If  1  am  proud,  'tis  only  to  ray  foes ; 
Rough  but  to  such  who  virtue  would  oppose. 
If  I  some  fierceness  from  a  father  drew, 
A  mother's  milk  gives  me  some  softness  too.  "  ^ 

When  it  is  rumored  that  Almahide  is  false 
and  the  emperor  raves,  Almanzor  assures  him 
that  a  husband's  honor  is  not  so  important  as 
a  lover's  and  that  himself  has  more  cause  for 
grievance.  He  questions  her  constancy,  but 
what  Dryden  would  doubtless  call  his  "  confi- 
dence of  himself  "  comes  to  his  rescue. 

"  She  must  be  chaste,  because  she's  loved  by  me."  * 

He  still  doubts,  nevertheless,  and  is  urged 
for  his  own  honor's  sake  to  keep  up  appear- 
ances. 

"  Yet  her  protection  I  must  undertake ; 
Not  now  for  love,  but  for  my  honour's  sake 
That  moved  me  first."  ^ 

In  his  way  he  remains  true  to  Almahide. 
Once  he  became  overbold  and  was  deterred 
only  by  a  threat  that  she  would  kill  herself. 
"  And  what  is  honour,"  he  asks,  "  but  a  love 
well  hid?" 

1  Jbid.  2  ii)i^^  pt,  2,  Act  4,  Sc.  3. 

8  Ibid.  Pt.  2,  Act  5,  Sc.  1. 


64  THE  ENGLISH  HEROIC  PLAY 

**  Praise  is  the  pay  of  heaven  for  doing  good ; 
But  love's  the  best  return  for  flesh  and  blood."  ^ 

The  emperor  is  killed  in  battle,  Almahide  goes 
into  a  year's  mourning,  offering  hope  to  Alman- 
zor  at  its  expiration.     His  birth  is  discovered, 
and  Almahide  and  a  throne  await  him. 
The  author  thus  analyzes  his  creation  : 

"  I  have  formed  a  hero,  I  confess,  not  abso- 
lutely perfect,  but  of  an  excessive  and  over- 
boiling courage  ;  but  Homer  and  Tasso  are  my 
precedents.  ...  , 

"  But  a  character  of  an  eccentric  virtue  is  the 
more  exact  image  of  human  life,  because  he  is 
not  wholly  exempted  from  its  frailties  ;  such 
a  person  is  Almanzor.  ...  I  designed  in  him 
roughness  of  character,  impatient  of  injuries, 
and  a  confidence  of  himself,  almost  approaching 
to  an  arrogance.  But  these  errors  are  incident 
only  to  great  spirits  ;  they  are  moles  and  dim- 
ples which  hinder  not  a  face  from  being  beau- 
tiful, though  that  beauty  be  not  regular.  .  .  . 
And  such  in  Almanzor  are  a  frank  and  noble 
openness  of  nature,  an  easiness  to  forgive  his 
conquered  enemies,  and  to  protect  them  in  dis- 
tress ;  and,  above  all,  an  inviolable  faith  in  his 
affection.  .  .  .  Heroes  should  only  be  judged 
by  heroes,  because  they  only  are  capable  of 
measuring  great  and  heroic  actions  by  the  rule 
and  standard  of  their  own." 

»  "  Conquest  of  Granada,"  Pt.  2,  Act  4,  Sc.  3. 


CHARACTER  65 

The  dramatist  concludes,  indirectly  asking 
the  reader  to  believe  that  Almanzor  does  not 
fail  in  any  "point  of  honour,"  and  that  "he 
fulfils  the  parts  of  personal  valour,  and  of  con- 
duct of  a  soldier  and  of  a  general."  ^ 

It  should  perhaps  be  added  in  justice  to 
Dryden's  dramatic  feeling  that  later  in  life  he 
repented  him  of  this  character.^  Even  at  this 
time  he  was  not  nearly  so  mightily  impressed 
with  him  as  he  would  have  the  detractors 
believe.  He  was  conscious  of  insincerity,  which 
is  amusingly  suggested  by  his  confession  as  to 
the  true  nature  of  Almanzor's  bravery.  "  After 
all,"  he  says,  "  the  greatness  of  the  enterprize 
consisted  only  in  the  daring,  for  he  had  the 
king's  guards  to  second  him."  ^ 

Love  is  the  main  theme  of  all  heroic  plays, 
and  the  sole  theme  of  many.  All  major  and 
most  minor  characters  are  lovers.  A  considera- 
tion of  them  as  such  is  the  only  one  that  the 
playwright  permits  himself.  The  hero  is  always 
a  warrior,  but  the  martial  element  is  made  so 

1  Ibid.    Dedication. 

^  "Spanish  Friar,  or  the  Double  Discovery."  By  John 
Dryden.     1681.     Dedication. 

8  Dryden,  "  Essay  on  Heroic  Plays." 
p 


f 


M  THE  ENGLISH  HEROIC  PLAY 

unimportant  that  nought  but  the  lover  re- 
mains. Lack  of  complexity  and  of  individual- 
ization makes  a  citation  of  several  characters 
unnecessary.  It  is,  indeed,  in  this  lack  of  true 
characterization  and  interest  in  other  passions 
than  love  that  the  absence  of  Shakespearean 
variety  is  manifested  quite  as  much  as  in  the 
entire  omission  of  certain  forms.  A  description 
of  the  leading  character  of  a  Shakespearean  play 
answers  no  other  ;  but  Almanzor  is  well-nigh  a 
complete  embodiment  of  all  the  qualities  that 
the  corresponding  figures  of  other  heroic  plays 
possess. 

The  general  statement  may  be  qualified  to  a 
certain  extent  by  a  treatment  of  the  villain, 
because  the  individuals  of  the  type  differ  from 
one  another  more  than  individual  heroes  differ 
from  each  other.  As  an  indication  of  the 
greater  stress  put  upon  love  than  upon  ambi- 
tion, the  latter  quality,  which  has  been  of  good 
repute  in  the  actual  world  of  all  time,  is  prac- 
tised and  extolled  in  the  heroic  drama  only  by 
the  villains. 

"  In  sluggish  Breasts  Love's  idle  frenzy  rules ; 
Ambition  is  the  Lust  of  all  great  Souls."  ^ 

1  "  Conquest  of  China,"  Act  3,  Sc.  3. 


CHARACTER  67 

It  is  not  until  the  third  act  that  Lycurgus 
asks  for  an  audience  to  behold  his  courage, 
savagery,  fierceness,  and  boldness. 

"  Ye  Gods  of  China,  if  you  are  such  tame 
And  inoffensive  things,  as  our  Priests  frame, 
Whose  Pious  Eares  and  Eyes  and  tender  Sense 
Delights  in  nought  but  Good  and  Innocence; 
Draw  back  your  Sun,  and  vele  yourselves  in  night ; 
I  shall  Act  Deeds,  which  all  weak  Eyes  will  fright. 
But  if  the  Nature  of  your  God-Heads  be 
Courageous,  savage,  fierce  and  bold  like  me, 
Heav'n  wear  no  Clouds,  and  Gods  take  a  full  view ; 
Look  and  admire  at  what  my  Hand  dares  doe."  * 

In  his  case,  ambition  is  unalloyed  with  any 
other  passion.     He  is  slave  to  no  woman. 

"  Who,  but  a  loving  fool, 
Wou'd  damn  his  own  to  save  a  woman's  Soul "  ?  ' 

He  is  one  of  the  very  few  conspicuous  figures  of 
the  heroic  drama  that  devotes  practically  no 
attention  to  them.  In  him  also  the  desire  to  be 
a  warrior  is  plainly  marked,  though  the  end  of 
war  is  but  to  achieve  power.  His  very  first 
words  show  his  inclination  to  be  head  of  the 
army  rather  than  of  internal  affairs. 

"  A  Gown's  not  that  my  soaring  wishes  want ; 
The  Sword  had  been  the  more  obliging  grant."  ' 

1  Ibid.       2  jii^^  Act  4,  Sc.  2.        «  Ibid.  Act  2. 


68  THE  ENGLISH  HEROIC  PLAY 

When  his  usurpation  of  the  throne  is  tempo- 
rarily successful,  he  says : 

♦•  No ;  China's  Crown  has  'till  my  Reign  been  worn 
By  lazy  Kings,  with  Female  Spirits  bom ; 
Guarded  by  Eunuchs,  bred  in  Palaces, 
Nurtur'd  in  Lusts,  the  Progeny  of  Peace; 
But  now's  the  time,  Fate  grants  the  High  Command 
Of  this  Great  Empire  to  a  Martial  Hand  I  "  ^ 

There  is  a  slight  love  element  in  Melynet's 
life,  but  it  is  unimportant.  He  thus  chooses  a 
villanous  career  for  the  sake  of  power  over  the 
king. 

"  It  is  only  being  blest  by  Fortune  in  the  end, 
that  gives  the  intention  value.  That's  the 
unjust  scale,  by  which  the  world  weighs  all 
things.  But  why  should  I  condemn  ingrati- 
tude as  Vice,  that  for  ambition  turn  a  Villain 
and  betray  my  friend?  Yet  'tis  not  I  am 
guilty,  though  I  act  the  Crime ;  'tis  the  abusive 
world  which  throws  such  heaps  of  injuries  and 
scorns  on  wanting  Virtue,  that  mans  courage 
cannot  bear  it ;  at  least  mine  shall  not,  if  a 
streach'd  conscience  will  relieve  me. 

"  I'll  grasp  a  fortune  though  I  heav'n  let  go, 
That  I  have  heard  of,  but  'tis  this  I  know ; "  ' 

1  "Conquest  of  China,"  Act  5. 

2  "  Marcelia,"  Act  1,  Sc.  6. 


CHARACTER  69 

He  repents  in  this  manner : 

"  Vain  joys  of  mortal  Life  I  you  fly  so  fast 
Man  hardly  knows  you  are  before  you're  past; 
Yet  we  on  you  do  our  affections  lay, 
As  if  we  here  eternally  should  stay. 
Honor,  thou  now  dost  give  my  soul  a  view 
Of  what  I  left  when  first  I  banish'd  you. 

0  Virtue  1  how  have  I  bin  led  astray. 

From  thy  fair  paths,  into  this  Lab'rynth  way? 

1  thought  my  fortune  on  a  rock  did  stand, 
But  Guilts  foundation  still  proves  foolish  sand. 
When  man  by  Crimes  does  plots  for  greatness  lay, 
Heav'n  justly  frowns  and  takes  his  hopes  away. 
But  though  my  life  bears  characters  of  shame ; 
My  death  shall  leave  behind  a  better  Fame."  ^ 

Revenge  for  wrongs  and  unsuccessful  love  is 
Jasper's  excuse.  "  Fatal  Jealousie  "  is,  strictly 
speaking,  only  partly  a  heroic  play ;  the  amount 
of  rhyme  is  small,  and  the  character  range  is 
comparatively  large.  But  Jasper  is  one  of  the 
most  interesting  villains  of  Restoration  tragedy. 
He  tells  his  own  story  : 

"  Capt.   For  what  should  move  thee  to  this  Villainy  ? 

Jasp.   For  that  you  will  not  wonder. 
I  am  Jasper  de  Monsalvo,  Heir  to  that  Estate 
This  Lord  doth  now  possess. 

A  nio.   Ah  Heav'ns !  some  of  that  desperate  Bandity 
Did  once  attempt  my  life. 

1  Ibid.  Act  5,  Sc.  8. 


70  THE  ENGLISH  HEROIC  PLAT 

Jasp.  Yes  truly.  .  .  . 

Anto.   Poor  Celia,  'tis  no  wonder  thy  mind  did  bead 
Great  mischiefs  from  this  Fellow,  being  Son  of 
One  did  still  contrive  to  kill  me,  for  what  the 
King  after  just  forfeiture  for  mighty  services 
Had  given  my  Father. 

Jasp.   O  Revenge ! 
Thy  sweetness  takes  away  the  taste  of  Death. 
But  you'l  lose  my  story ;  which  in  short  is  this : 
That  Lady  lov'd  me  not,  and  therefore  I 
Made  her  Lord  Jealous,  took  him  to  a  Witch, 
And  there  I  fool'd  him  finely :  till  the  Jade, 
Who  was  my  Aunt  indeed,  at  your  approach 
Would  have  discover'd  all ;  which  I  prevented. 
And  stopt  her  Mouth  with  this :   Then  I  contriv'd 
To  kill  Eugenia,  knowing  she  would  meet 
Francisco  in  the  Garden ;  that  I  did 
Because  she  call'd  me  Villain,  and  ref  us'd 
To  let  me  Whore  her  too,  as  did  her  Couzen ; 
And  more,  I  knew  the  simple  Jjord  I  serv'd 
When  he  had  murder'd  her,  as  I  should  make  him, 
Would  thank  my  Care,  and  well  reward  it  too : 
Nay,  I'd  have  him  do't  for  his  own  safety, 
That  still  the  Murder  might  be  thought  Francisco's ; 
Tou  know  the  rest  i'  th'  Garden.    I  taught  besides 
That  damn'd  Old  Hagg,  whose  fear  has  made  me  thus, 
To  put  this  trick  on  Pedro ;  I  bid  her  call  him 
When  she  should  hear  us  whistle,  then  in  haste. 
And  all  undrest  send  him  to  Celiacs  Chamber, 
Whilst  we,  let  in,  might  meet  hira  coming  thence, 
Thinking  the  Cuckold's  Rage  would  murder  all. 
And  never  hear  'em  speak;  but  there  I  fail'd. 
Their  dying  words  betray'd  me,  that's  the  worst, 


CHARACTER  71 

Or  I  had  liv'd  to  glory  in  their  Deaths ; 
But  this  my  Comfort  is,  he'l  not  survive  me, 
I  have  done  his  bus'ness  too  before  I  dye. 

Sew.   Was  er'e  so  impudent  a  Villain  seen? 

Capt.   I'le  try  to  stop  his  vpounds,  that  so 
I  may  keep  him  for  Execution. 

Jasp.    Stand  off,  by  Hell, 
He  that  comes  near  me  finds  his  Death  with  this  1 
Think  you  I'm  grown  so  tame  to  dye  by  Law ; 
No,  no  I'le  not  endure  a  formal  Tryal, 
To  be  upbraided  with  those  things  I  think 
Deserve  a  Trophy  rather  than  Contempt, 
Which  since  I  know  will  follow,  here's  my  bail, 
This  will  deliver  any  Man  from  Jayl. 
Let  Cowards  dye  by  hanging ;  such  as  I 
As  we  live  bravely,  thus  dare  bravely  dye. 

[^Stabs  himself."  ^ 

This  account  does  not  even  suggest  the  wit, 
vivacity,  and  sprightliness  shown  in  scenes  which 
lose  their  virtue  in  description  but  which  make 
the  character  memorable,  and  which  doubtless 
put  Baker  in  mind  of  a  Shakespearean  proto- 
type.^ The  comparison,  of  course,  was  veiy 
unfavorable,  but  the  mere  fact  that  any  re- 
semblance was  seen  is  really  praise. 

1  "Fatal  Jealousie,"  Act  5. 

2  David  Erskine  Baker,  "Biographia  Dramatica,  or  a  Com- 
panion to  the  Playhouse."  1811.  ii.  229.  "  The  character 
of  Jasper  seems  to  be  a  bad  copy  of  lago  in  '  Othello.'  " 


72  THE  ENGLISH  HEROIC  PLAT 

Richard  is  swayed  both  by  ambition  and  love. 
He  is  a  "tyrant,"  and  Richmond  a  "lover." 
The  first  term  probably  means  "  a  cruel  ruler," 
and  Richard  with  his  past  crimes  and  present 
threats  against  the  life  of  the  princess  deserves 
the  title.  Many  heroic  villains  are  tyrants ; 
but  it  should  be  observed  that  being  a  villain  or 
a  tyrant  does  not  prevent  one  from  being  a 
lover ;  rather  love  is  the  customary  channel  for 
exercising  and  explaining  villany.  Here,  for 
example,  in  spite  of  their  appellations,  Richard 
is  a  lover  as  well  as  a  tyrant.  The  lover  is 
morally  good  and  the  tyrant  bad,  but  in  essen- 
tials,—  desire  for  success  in  war  and  love, — 
they  are  alike,  and  there  is  no  complexity  in 
either.  There  is  no  harmony  between  the  senti- 
ments and  those  who  voice  them.  Richard,  for 
example,  complains  thus  : 

"  With  Patience,  like  Love's  Martyr,  I  have  bom 
Not  only  her  Denials,  but  her  Scorn."  ^ 

"  Geneste  observes  (of  Crowne's  Caligula) 
that  the  author  has  '  been  very  injudicious  in 
the  choice  of  his  subject  —  it  was  not  possible 
to  construct  a  good  play  on  the  story  of  Caligula 
—  he  was  a  monster  of  wickedness,  but  none  of 

1  "English  Princess,"  Act  3,  Sc.  2. 


CHARACTER  78 

his  actions  was  of  such  a  nature  as  to  produce 
a  good  effect  upon  the  stage.'  Had  our  author 
attempted  to  frame  a  dramatic  chronicle  of  the 
life  of  this  execrable  tyrant,  the  critique  might 
have  been  accepted,  but  this  was  not  the  object 
of  the  writer.  Giving  the  piece  the  name  of 
Caligula  did  not  necessarily  constitute  him  its 
hero.  The  name  was  used  as  a  peg  on  which 
to  hang  the  plot,  and  this  has  been  done  by 
Crowne  with  more  success  than  might  have 
been  anticipated,  when  the  circumstances  under 
which  the  tragedy  was  written  are  taken  into 
consideration."  ^ 

A  great  deal  of  space  is  devoted  to  an  exposi- 
tion of  Caligula.  He  is  on  the  stage  much  of 
the  time,  his  speeches  are  long  and  frequent; 
and  because  of  this,  as  the  action  is  somewhat 
slow,  his  personality  seems  to  dominate  the 
whole.  It  is  probably  because  of  the  slowness  of 
the  action  —  for  the  first  two  acts  are  consumed 
almost  entirely  with  an  exposition  of  his  char- 
acter and  power — that  the  first  impression  is 
that  a  study  in  character  has  been  attempted  ;  ^ 

1  "The  Dramatic  Works  of  John  Crowne,"  with  memoir 
and  notes  by  James  Maidment  and  W.  H.  Logan.  1874. 
iv.  339. 

2  "  Of  this  tragedy  it  will  suffice  to  say,  that  though  it 
reveals  a  praiseworthy  attempt  at  character-drawing,  the 
baldness  of  its  form  in  general  corresponds  to  the  common- 
place character  of  its  sentiment."  —  Ward,  iii.  403-404. 


74  THE  ENGLISH  HEROIC  PLAY 

it  continues  to  seem  altogether  too  important  to 
be  styled  merely  "  a  peg  on  which  to  hang  the 
plot." 

Deriving  from  history  sufficient  information 
out  of  which  to  construct  a  character  was  a 
different  matter  from  giving  a  character  "as 
pourtrayed  by  "  ^  the  historian.  Crowne  did  the 
former.  There  is  no  need  of  questioning  his 
main  source  as  Suetonius,  and  from  him  he 
could  have  derived  a  certain  amount  of  bio- 
graphical detail,  seemingly  considerable  only 
because  unusual,  and  also  the  framework  of 
human  monstrosity.  But  when  Caligula  had 
been  successfully  subjected  to  the  require- 
ments of  a  rhyming  villain  of  the  Restoration 
stage,  he  was  necessarily  transformed,  and  the 
likeness  to  the  real  emperor  ^  or  the  emperor 
of  the  historians  was  much  diminished.  Not 
surely  in  this  wise  did  the  real  emperor  woo  : 

"  Gk>ddess !  —  so,  no  doubt,  you  are, 
No  mortal  can  be  so  divinely  fair. 

i»«The  Emperor  is  given  as  pourtrayed  by  Suetonius, 
upon  whose  scandalous,  but  —  we  suspect  —  tolerably  correct 
biography,  Crowne  has  drawn  largely." — Maidmext  and 
Logan,  iv.  340. 

2  '•  Crowne  has  drawn  the  character  of  the  Emperor  accord- 
ing to  history." —  Genest,  ii.  143. 


CHARACTER  75 

Nay,  nay,  at  my  request,  sweet  madara,  rise ; 

Let  all  your  graces  entertain  my  eyes ! 

To  CfEsar  grant  the  infinite  delight 

To  touch,  and  see  a  hand  so  soft  and  white. 

Were  all  thy  other  beauties  cheats  of  art. 

This  hand  might  palm  a  passion  on  my  heart. "  ^ 

It  is  difficult  to  dissociate  the  matter  from  the 
diction,  but  his  mind  was  not  given  to  "  purling 
streams,"  even  though  it  may  have  been  to 
"  pleasing  dreams." 

"  The  falls  of  nations,  which  fill  cowards  with  fears 
Shall  but  like  water-falls  delight  our  ears  ; 
And  murmuring  subjects  shaU,  like  purling  streams, 
But  lull  us  deeper  in  our  pleasing  dreams."  * 

Nor  was  the  real  character,  according  to  Sue- 
tonius at  all  addicted  to  cynical  meditation, 
and  frequent  discourses  on  his  own  greatness. 
It  appears  on  study  that,  if  there  was  an 
attempt  made  to  reproduce  the  historical  figure, 
it  was  not,  from  a  strict  test,  successful;  and 
there  is  not  nearly  the  variety  to  the  character 
that  such  an  assumption  would  forecast.  The 
banishment  of  most  of  the  elements  of  life,  with 
the  comprisal  only  of  the  concernments  of  love 
and  war,  those  passions  being  employed  in  their 
simplest  and  most  literal  way  —  love,  to  be 
1  "  Caligula,"  Act  4.  2  jr^ij^.  Act  1. 


76  THE  ENGLISH  HEROIC  PLAY 

sure,  somewhat  formal  yet  for  the  most  part 
physical,  and  war  no  more,  no  less,  than  combat 
on  the  battle-field — greatly  narrowed  the  space 
for  character  display.  So  Caligula  has  much  in 
common  after  all  with  the  rank  and  file  of  heroic 
villains.  In  place  of  variety  there  is  repetition. 
At  the  same  time  there  remain  enough  points  of 
contact  between  him  and  his  historic  prototype, 
—  points  moreover  opposite  to  heroic  tradition 
such  as  inconstancy  in  love  —  to  differentiate 
him  none  the  less  clearly,  because  not  wholly, 
from  the  others ;  and  in  degree,  if  not  in  kind, 
his  villainy  was  deeper  dyed  and  more  monster- 
like.  The  character  is  almost  motiveless.  Re- 
venge, ambition,  disappointed  love,  do  not 
account  for  his  actions,  but  rather  lust,  desire 
for  blood,  innate  depravity. 

The  hero  is  nearly  always  a  young  man, 
and  the  same  is  true  of  the  villain  ;  but  there 
is  generally  an  old  man  concerned,  who  may 
occupy  a  distinct,  though  not  the  principal, 
place;  he  may,  indeed,  be  synonymous  with 
the  hero,^  but  more  often  he  is  allied  with 
the  villain  element.  IMaximinian,^  one  of  the 
most  famous  seventeenth-century  characters, 
1  "  Sacrifice."  *  " Tyrannic  Love." 


CHARACTER  77 

the  emperor  in  the  "  Conquest  of  Granada," 
the  two  Herods,^  Solyman  in  "  Ibrahim,"  Soly- 
man  in  "  Mustapha,"^  and  Ibrahim  in  the  "  Con- 
spiracy," ^  are  all  old,  and  are  all  amorous.  It 
may  be  the  jealous  husband,  the  doting  father, 
the  aged  monarch ;  but  they  do  not  differ  much 
from  one  another*.  Age  does  not  bring  with  it 
individualization,  to  say  nothing  of  discretion.  A 
gray-haired  and  oft-married  sultan  uses  the  same 
language  of  extravagant  enthusiasm,  as  soon  as 
he  sees  the  heroine,  that  a  young  lover  would  use. 
A  feature  common  to  the  plays  is  the 
character  of  the  unsuccessful  rival  to  the  hero. 
He  is  sometimes  a  villain,  perhaps  the  villain, 
who  resorts  to  foul  means  to  advance  himself 
in  his  lady's  regard,  and  is  false  to  friendship. 
Such  a  villain  is  Altemast,  who  disguises  him- 
self as  a  woman,  not  for  the  gratification  of 
lust,  but  to  ingratiate  himself  into  the  heart 
of  Altemira,  and  takes  advantage  of  her  con- 
fidence.  Seleucus  in  "Tryphon"  is  a  false  friend. 

1  "  Herod  the  Great."     By  Roger  Boyle,  Earl  of  Orrery. 
1673.     And  "  Herod  and  Mariamne." 

2  "  Mustapha,  the  son  of  Solyman  the  Magnificent."    By 
Roger  Boyle,  Earl  of  Orrery.     1608. 

*  "  Conspiracy,  or  the  Change  of  Government."    By  M. 
WMtaker.     1680. 


78  THE  ENGLISH  HEROIC  PLAT 

"  Our  fortunes,  Sir,  with  the  like  Malice  move ; 
You  love  one  sister  ;  I  the  other  love ; 
You  have  a  rival  who  her  heart  has  won, 
To  me  my  Rival  the  like  Wrong  has  done ; 
But  tliat  at  which  we  justly  should  repine, 
Your  Friend's  your  Rival,  and  my  Friend  is  mine."* 

He  debates  with  himself  and  decides  to  prove 
false. 

"  Oh !  whither  by  my  Passion  am  I  led  ? 
My  Love  should  die  after  my  Hopes  are  dead ; 
She  has  herself  declar'd  to  me  that  she 
Has  giv'n  to  him  that  which  is  sought  by  me ; 
Nor  is  Aretus  guilty  of  the  Crime ; 
He  does  to  me  what  I'd  have  done  to  him ; 
Because  in  Love  I  cannot  reach  my  End, 
Why  should  Revenge  deprive  me  of  my  Friend  ? 
Great  Gods  I  how  can  I  prove  so  cold  and  tame, 
As  on  a  Rival  to  bestow  that  name  ? 
And  while  Aretus  does  my  joys  ingross, 
Talk  myself  into  patience  for  my  loss  ? 
Since  Friendship  thus  does  plead  for  my  Disgrace, 
Revenge,  do  thou  ascend,  and  take  the  Place ; 
Thou  more  like  Virtue  dost  to  me  appear. 
Than  Friendship  can,  in  this  Affront  I  bear, 
Since  to  the  Brave  nothing  should  be  above 
Revenge  in  Wrongs,  or  Constancy  in  Love ; 
Therefore  thy  Death,  proud  Rival,  I'll  pursue ; 
If  I  must  lose  her,  thou  must  lose  her  too."  ' 

For  a  time  he  exults  in  his  guilt. 

1  "  Tryphon,"  Act  6.  a  Ibid. 


CHARACTER  79 

"  You,  ere  I  cou'd  make  you  my  great  Request, 
Told  me,  Aretus  reigned  within  your  Breast; 
Ah !  when  I  found  that  he  was  Monarch  there, 
I  did,  compell'd  by  Love  and  by  Despair, 
Discover  all  to  Tryphon,  with  Design, 
Helping  his  Love  to  make  him  further  mine. 
This,  Madam,  you  may  look  on  as  my  Sin ; 
But,  what  you  think  my  guilt,  I  glory  in ; 
For  what  more  fully  could  my  Passion  prove. 
Than  sacrificing  of  my  Friends  to  Love  ?  "  ^ 

In  the  end,  however,  he  admits  to  his  successful 
rival  the  justice  of  his  fate. 

"  Under  such  Loads  of  Guilt  myself  I  find. 
That  I,  tho'  forc'd  by  Love,  your  Death  design'd. 
As  I  the  gi-eatest  suff'rings  ought  to  bear, 
And  therefore  yield  t'  endure  the  loss  of  her."  * 

But  among  unsuccessful  lovers  there  is 
many  a  true  friend,  and  self-sacrifice  is  by  no 
means  infrequent.  Tudor  is  perhaps  the  most 
comprehensive  illustration ;  but  Delaware,  in 
"  The  Black  Prince,"  and  Sir  William  Stanley  ^ 
are  of  a  like  nature,  and  in  a  humbler  sphere 
the  love  of  the  servants  and  keepers  above 
their  rank,  such  as  Hametalhaz  in  the  "Em- 
press of  Morocco"*  and  Ulama  in  "Ibrahim." 

^  Ibid.  *  Ibid.  •  English  Princess. 

*  «'  Empress  of  Morocco."    By  Elkanah  Settle.     1673. 


80  THE  ENGLISH  HEROIC  PLAY 

The  friend  and  rival  are  frequently  the 
same  among  principal  personages,  but  in  the 
lesser  figures  the  friend  merges  into  the  con- 
fidant, and  the  confidant,  although  in  every 
play,  is  utterly  without  distinction. 

Although  the  combination  of  friendship  and 
rivalry  is  common  among  men,  it  is  exceedingly 
rare  among  women.  The  case  of  the  two 
Amazons,  who,  until  a  lover  made  them  rivals, 
had  lived  in  the  closest  friendship,  and  then 
vieing  to  outdo  each  other  in  generosity 
eventually  decided  to  share  him  successive 
years,  though  minor,  seems  to  be  the  only  one 
in  point.^ 

The  heroine  of  this  kind  of  drama  falls  in 
love  with  the  hero  usually  at  first  sight,  as  soon 
after  the  opening  of  the  play  as  possible,  if  she 
is  not  already  in  that  state.  She  is  young  and 
beautiful,  though  her  beauty  is  never  tangibly 
described  except  that  her  eyes  are  irresistible. 
She  may  be  either  maid,  wife,  or  widow,  at  the 
time  of  the  hero's  advent;  but  if  she  be  wife, 
she  remains  true  to  her  husband,  although  his 
jealousy  may  bring  about  her  death.  But  she 
admits  her  love  for  the  hero,  and  he  finds  oppor- 
1  "Amazon  Queen,"  Act  4,  Sc.  1. 


CHARACTER  81 

tunities  to  make  his  addresses.  The  story  of 
I  their  love  is  a  primary  matter  of  the  play,  and 
she  is  not  interested  in  any  other  concern. 
Holzhausen's  remark  that  women  in  Dryden 
understand  how  to  philosophize  about  passion, 
but  themselves  are  devoid  of  feeling,^  may  be 
extended  to  his  contemporaries  and  successors 
in  playwriting. 

The  Maiden  Queen  has  been  praised  among 
Dryden's  women,^  and  she  embodies,  moreover, 
many  of  the  typical  traits.  She  has  the  tradi- 
tional anti-democratic  sentiment  regarding  the 
peoples'  rights  as  compared  with  her  own,^  and 
a  dislike  of  being  ruled  by  a  husband,  espe- 
cially one  imposed  upon  her,*  with  a  touch 
of  cynical  worldliness  on  the  power  of  gold  to 
win  affection. 

"  All  eyes  are  fair, 
That  sparkle  with  the  jewels  of  a  crown."  ^ 

Her  counsellors  advise  her  to  marry.  As 
soon  as  the  "  factious  deputies "  are  gone, 
she  stands  alone  in  the  presence  of  the  man 
she  loves,  who  knows  it  not.  This  scene 
is  marked  by  a  certain  attention  to  the  mood. 

1  Holzhausen,  E.  S.,  xiii.  435,  ^  Pepys. 

8  *' Maiden  Queen,"  Act  1,  Sc.  3.         ♦  Ibid.      ^  Ibid. 

a 


8S  THE  ENGLISH  HEROIC  PLAY 

She  fluctuates,  desiring  him  first  to  stay,  then 
to  go,  then  again  to  stay,^  and  weeps  because  he 
of  all  men  urged  her  marriage,*  and  bemoans 
her  want  of  freedom   to  love  where  she  will. 

♦'  Shall  I,  — I,  who  was  bom  a  sovereign  queen, 
Be  barred  of  that  which  God  and  nature  gives 
The  merest  slave,  a  freedom  in  my  love  ?  " ' 

He  reluctantly  leaves  her  in  her  "high  dis- 
pleasure," accidentally  dropping  a  picture, 
which  is  handed  her.  It  is  of  Candiope,  Prince 
Lysimantes'  sister.  She  is  angry  at  the  revela- 
tion, and  straightway  remarks  on  the  ugliness 
of  the  original,  though  rumor  holds  Candiope 
beyond  comparison  the  fairest  lady  our  isle  can 
boast.*  The  queen,  on  being  reminded  of  the 
change  that  has  come  over  her  disposition,  says  it 
does  not  matter,  for  her  life  will  shortly  be  at 
an  end.  This  leads  to  a  confession  of  her  love 
to  a  confidant  and  a  planning  between  them 
as  to  how  Philocles'  love  may  be  turned  from 
Candiope  unto  herself ;  whether  or  not  to  pre- 
vent by  "  sovereign  authority  "  the  marriage  of 
Candiope  and  Philocles.^  There  is  a  repetition 
of  her  indecision  as  to  how  to  behave  in  the 

1  '•  Maiden  Queen,"  Act  1,  So.  3. 
*Ibid.         'Ibid.         *  Ibid.         ^  Jbid. 


CHARACTER  83 

presence  of  Philocles.  She  tells  him  she 
loves  a  man  as  worthy  as  himself,  and  then  be- 
cause he,  in  his  ignorance,  condemns  such  a  man, 
she  rebukes  him  and  banishes  him  her  presence, 
— for  the  day,  — and  herself  resolves  no  more  to 
love  him.i  Then,  because  her  confidant  agrees 
with  her,  she  reproves  the  woman,  saying, 

"  I  love  him,  and  may  rail ;  in  you  'tis  malice ;  "  ^ 

but  soon  repents.^  It  is  not  long  before  she 
meets  her  lover.  He  would  run  away,  to  avert 
her  displeasure ;  for  he  has  been  banished ;  but 
she  has  forgotten  all  about  it.* 

The  queen  comes  upon  Candiope  and  her 
lover,  is  maddened  at  the  sight,  insults  Candi- 
ope, detailing  her  physical  imperfections,  and 
finally,  when  Candiope  rashly  says, 

"What  my  faults  are  is  no  matter; 
He  loves  me  with  them  all,  —  " 

she  retorts : 

"  Ay,  he  may  love ;  but  when  he  marries  you, 
Your  bridal  shall  be  kept  in  some  dark  dungeon. 
Farewell,  and  think  of  that,  too  easy  maid. 
I  blush  thou  sharest  my  blood."  ^ 

1  Ibid.  Act  2,  Sc.  1.  a  Ibid.  «  Ibid. 

*  Ibid.  Act  3,  Sc.  1.  *  Ibid. 


84  THE  EiJGLISH  HEROIC  PLAY 

She  goes  out,  but  returns  before  the  lovers 
have  finished  their  scene,  and  from  above  listens 
to  their  wooing,  hears  herself  called  cruel, 
despises  herself  for  still  loving,  and  resolves 
anew  to  cease.  She  overhears  them  plotting  an 
elopement,  decides  to  ordain  fitting  punishment, 
and  bids  her  attendant  never  to  mention  Philo- 
cles'  name  again. ^  The  queen  next  commands 
the  same  woman  to  do  nothing  else  but  speak 
of  Philocles,  and  classes  herself  with  mad  people 
who  never  think  the  same  thing  twice.  She  is 
between  anger  and  love.  Philocles  has  turned 
against  her ;  she  finds  her  power  gone,  but 
realizes  virtue 

"  Has  but  given  me  a  great  occasion 
Of  showing  what  I  am,  when  fortune  leaves  me."  ' 

On  being  reminded  that  her  lover  is  against  her 
she  answers  with  unwonted  sincerity  and  natu- 
ralness : 

"  Ay,  Philocles !    I  must  confess  'twas  hard."  • 

"  Never  till  now  unhappy  queen."  * 

Asteria,  unknown  to  her,  indicates  to  Philo- 
cles the  queen's  love  for  him.     The  queen  sus- 

1  "  Maiden  Queen,"  Act  3,  Sc.  1.  »  Ibid. 

2  Ibid.  Act  4,  Sc.  2.  *  Ibid. 


CHARACTER  85 

pects  as  much,  and  blames  not  more  her  con- 
fidant's "  female  weakness  "  than  her  own  in 
trusting  her.  "  O,  whither  am  I  fallen  ?  "  she 
says.  But  she  determines  upon  a  course  of 
action  —  to  rouse  herself  from  her  passion  — 

"  In  hearts  resolved  weak  love  is  put  to  flight, 
And  only  conquers,  when  we  dare  not  fight."  ^ 

Lysimantes  enters,  he  who  has  made  her  -vir- 
tually a  prisoner.  He  asks  her  hand  in  mar- 
riage, and  is  spurned.  He  upbraids  her  with 
loving  beneath  her.  At  the  first  suspicion  that 
this  love  is  known  the  queen  says,  in  an  aside  : 

"  This  is  the  extremest  malice  of  my  stars. "  ^ 

He  accuses  her  plainly,  mentions  her  jealousy 
of  Candiope,  and  concludes, 

"  Prove  you  love  him  not,  yet  give  her  him, 
And  I'll  engage  my  honour  to  lay  down  my  arms. 
Now  hold  my  heart,  for  this  one  act  of  honour, 
And  I  will  never  ask  more  courage  of  thee."* 

And  she  believes  her  love  shrinking  and  giving 
way  to  glory.  But  on  the  sight  of  Philocles 
she  knows  her  passion  is  not  banished,  but  only 
"chained  up."*     Yet  she  renounces  her  love, 

1  Ibid.  Act  5,  Sc.  1.        «  jftj-^.        s  jj^i^i,        i  p,i^. 


f 


86  THE  ENGLISH  HEROIC  PLAY 

bids  Pliilocles  take  Candiope,  wishes  them  hap- 
piness, and  is  pleased  with  herself  that  she  can 
force  her  tongue  to  speak  words  so  distant  from 
her  heart ;  and  for  herself  resolves  to  con- 
tinue unmarried,  and  to  devote  her  life  to  her 
subjects.^  Lysimantes,  who  loves  her,  in  imita- 
tion of  her  oath,  vows  a  single  life,  and  the  play 
ends  with  her  in  complete  joy,  for  the  right  of 
Lysimantes  will  devolve  upon  Candiope,  and 
therefore  will  be 

"  This  great  content,  to  think  when  I  am  dead, 
My  crown  may  fall  on  Philocles  head." 

The  Maiden  Queen's  actions  have  been  thus 
specifically  detailed  because  mainly  through 
them  is  her  character  disclosed,  and  her  char- 
acter is  of  special  importance  because  of  Dry- 
den's  explicit  statement :  "  It  was  as  much 
as  I  designed,  to  show  one  great  and  absolute 
pattern  of  honour  in  my  poem,  which  I  did 
in  the  person  of  the  queen ;  all  the  defects  of 
the  other  parts  being  set  to  show,  the  more  to 
recommend  that  one  character  of  virtue  to  the 
audience."  ^ 

The  Maiden  Queen  is  painted  with  a  little 

1  "  Maiden  Queen,"  Act  5,  So.  1.  »  Ibid.  Preface. 


CHARACTER  ^  87 

finer  brush  than  most  of  the  corresponding 
characters.  It  is  the  attention  to  the  passing 
mood  that  distinguishes  the  delineation,  and 
self-sacrifice  is  the  most  important  element  in 
her  character.  This  quality  is  not  typical  to  a 
noticeable  extent  of  the  virtuous  women  of  the 
heroic  drama,  but  through  it  a  few  of  them 
deserve  mention.  Perhaps  the  queen  herself  is 
the  only  major  character  of  the  kind  ;  the  minor 
in  Dryden  is  Amalthea  in  "Marriage-a-la-Mode," 
hieing  to  a  nunnery  and  submitting  to  the  pangs 
of  unrequited  love. 

Asteria  is  the  daughter  of  Solyman  the  Mag- 
nificent in  "  Ibrahim."  Ibrahim  is  the  sultan's 
favorite,  and  returning  from  victorious  wars,  is 
rewarded  by  Asteria's  hand.  Her  love  for  him 
is  unrequited,  for  he  is  betrothed  to  "  Isabella, 
a  Christian  Princess,"  and  at  the  risk  of  dis- 
grace declines  the  sultan's  offer.  Isabella  ap- 
pears and  Solyman  becomes  enamoured  of  her. 
Asteria,  instead  of  scorning  Ibrahim  for  ever- 
more, and  hating  her  rival,  apprises  the  lovers 
of  her  father's  design,  and  aids  them,  though 
unsuccessfully,  to  escape.  When  the  guards 
enter  to  capture  Ibrahim,  Asteria  fights  in  his 
defence,   and   is   killed.      The    usual   note   of 


88  THE  ENGLISH  HEROIC  PLAY 

hatred  toward  her  rival  is  lacking  in  this 
character.  It  is  purely  from  unselfish  motives 
and  with  realization  of  her  hopeless  love  that 
she  acts  as  she  does.  Chariot,^  the  girl  dis- 
guised as  a  page  who  helps  her  lover  win  her 
rival,  is  another  case  in  point. 

The  character  of  Thalestris,  the  Amazon 
Queen,  stands  out  in  sharp  contrast  to  the 
conventional  heroine.  She  is  a  vindicator  of 
the  rights  of  womankind  and  also  the  unsuc- 
cessful aspirant  for  Alexander's  affection. 

"  But  I  can  never  be  his  enemy, 
Nor  can  they  others  love  who  him  once  see."  " 

Haughty,  uncompromising,  not  willing  to  par- 
take his  half  love,  — 

"  In  love  and  friendship  it  is  too  well  known, 
They  are  but  half  friends  who  have  more  than  one ; 
And  all  who  are  true  lovers  like  to  me, 
Dread  such  a  friend  more  than  an  enemy," — • 

in  a  moment  of  wine-exhilaration  —  on  reflec- 
tion, perhaps  shocking,  but  not  shockingly  por- 
trayed —  she  informs  him  of  her  passion. 

^  In  the  "  English  I*rincess." 

*  "Amazon  Queen,"  Act  2,  So.  2. 

•  Ibid.  Act  2,  Sc.  3. 


CHARACTER  89 

"  Though  slavish  women  use  not  to  bestow 
Hearts  on  those  men  who  do  to  others  bow, 
Yet  thy  great  merit  makes  it  destiny, 
I  cann't  but  do't,  and  in  drink  tell  it  thee. 
Wine  does  make  love  like  Spring-tides  over-flow. 
Else  I  should  scorn  you  should  this  weakness  know."^ 

She   resigns  herself  with   extraordinary  com- 
plaisance to  her  fate,  hoping 

"  Marr'age  may  help  me  yet  with  jealousie."  ^ 

She  coolly  prophesies  that  the  marriage  will  be 
unhappy. 

"  Sir,  your  Statira's  more  than  any  she, 
If  she's  without  some  hid  deformity; 
But  if  more  knowledge  should  discover  naught, 
But  that  her  mind  and  body's  as  it  ought ; 
Yet  all  minds  have  an  inequality, 
Which  will  make  them  distrust  or  disagree. 
For  when  Statira  shall  sometimes  be  dull. 
Then  love  will  seem  not  answer'd  to  the  full ; 
And  when  you  her  frolick  and  wanton  find. 
Then  you  will  doubt  she  may  to  more  be  kind."  * 

In  a  worldly-wise  way  she  declines  the  invita- 
tion to  the  wedding. 

"  Excuse  me.  Sir,  if  I  resolve  to  shun 
The  witnessing  your  being  both  undone. 
But  I  have  made  some  Amazons  advance 
To  give  your  Majesty  this  night  a  dance. 

1  Ibid.  Act  4,  Sc.  5.        2  /jij^.        s  7^,^-^.  Act  5,  So.  3. 


00  THE  ENGLISH  HEROIC  PLAY 

And  I  will  wait  i'  th'  morning  when  you  rise 

To  see  what  charms  remains  ia  the  Queen's  eyes."  * 

Her  story,  disregarding  the  manner  in  which 
it  is  presented,  is  not  unusual ;  but  her  opinions 
on  the  rights  of  woman  and  her  championship 
of  the  unmarried  state  sound  in  advance  of  her 
time.     She  proclaims  herself  as 

"  The  Queen  of  liberty,"  » 

and  states  her  mission : 

"  This  woman  scorns  some  Husband's  tyranny; 
And  all  such  female  worthies  we  must  free."  ' 

Thalestris  is  a  veritable  Amazon,  — 

"  By  heaven  she  mocks  me  'cause  T  had  a  slight. 
Ah,  that  thou  wert  a  rival  who  durst  fight ; "  * 

she  tries  to  be  thoroughly  masculine  : 

"  Though  I,  like  men,  have  learn'd  to  fight  and  woe, 
To  be  accomplish'd  I  must  try  drink  too."  * 

Her  discrediting  marriage  may  be  distinguished 
from  the  similar  note  in  contemporary  comedy, 

1  "  Amazon  Queen,"  Act  5,  So.  7.  This  character  is  not  to 
be  confounded  with  the  one  of  the  same  name  in  "  Siege  of 
Babylon." 

«  Ibid.  Act  4,  Sc.  6.  *  Ibid.  Act  2,  Sc.  7. 

»  Ibid.  Act  2,  Sc.  3.  »  Ibid.  Act  4,  Sc.  5. 


CHARACTER  91 

where  the  end  is  satirical,  or  in  the  body  of 
tragedy,  where  the  exposition  is  made  by  a 
lover  in  defence  of  his  disregarding  the  marital 
state.  With  her  it  is  both  a  personal  and  an 
impersonal  matter. 

"  You  use  me  ill  to  talk  of  marriage, 
I  scorn  to  be  your  tame  bird  in  a  cage."  * 

She  thinks  of  wedlock 

"  As  that  which  loseth  womens  sovereignty."  ^ 

Her  argument  is  more  thoughtful  than  in  the 
mass  of  similar  passages  in  other  plays. 

"  For  with  a  kind  and  sprightly  liberty, 
They  meet  by  natures  choice  whose  Souls  are  free; 
Whilst  marri'd  fools,  like  Curs  in  couples  ti'd, 
Would  fain  be  running  where  they  are  deni'd, 
But  each  hates  other  as  an  enemy, 
For  checking  a  more  grateful  sympathy ; 
And  so  with  dull  and  froward  thoughts  they  get 
Babes  like  themselves,  fit  to  submit  and  fret."  ' 

The  reasoning  is  more  detailed : 

"I'l  have  no  master  for  Companion. 
If  I  would  take  the  air,  I  first  must  know 
If 't  be  fair  weather  in  my  husband's  brow ; 
And  all  my  dearest  friends  I  must  forswear, 
Lest  he  should  think  they  are  to  me  too  dear  ; 

1  Ihid.  Act  1,  Sc.  4.  »  Ibid.  Act  5,  Sc.  4. 

8  Ihid.  Act  2,  Sc.  6. 


f 


88  THE  ENGLISH  HEROIC  PLAY 

My  fortune  too  is  his,  and  I  must  be 
Stinted  in  point  of  generosity."  ^ 

Zelmura  is  the  principal  person  in  the  "  Siege 
of  Memphis,  or  the  Ambitious  Queen."* 

She  is  also  an  Amazon.  Her  fame  as  warrior 
precedes  her  appearance : 

"the  Queen  did  dauntless  stand, 
Terrour  coucht  in  her  eye,  death  in  her  hand ; 
The  Heartless  Crowd  wondering,  look  up  to  spy 
This  new  Bellona  usher'd  from  the  Sky."  • 

She  wins  the  battle  against  the  "  Assyrians," 
and  their  leader  Moarun.  She  offers  to  fight 
him  single-handed,  — 

"  For  though  a  Woman  I've  a  manly  Soul."* 

Honor  prevents  his  accepting  the  challenge. 
His  gallantry  captivates  her  ;  so,  when  the  king 
orders  his  death,  she  stops  the  guards  who  are 
about  to  take  him  away. 

1  "  Amazon  Queen,"  Act  1,  Sc.  4. 

'  "This  play  is  dedicated  to  the  Truly  Generous  Henry 
Chivers,  Esq.,  who  shew'  himself  truly  such  in  defending  a 
play  so  full  of  Bombast  and  Fustian."  —  Lanobaine,  p.  183. 
•'Zelmura,  however,  is  a  spirited  character."  —  Gekbst, 
1.183. 

»  "  Siege  of  Memphis,"  Act  1,  Sc.  1. 

*  Ibid.  Act  1,  Sc.  2. 


CHARACTER  93 

Still  the   king's  admiration   for  her   is   un- 
bounded. 

"  Let  other  raonarchs  of  their  Subjects  boast, 
I  have  a  Theam  will  fill  the  mouth  of  fame 
His  Trump  resounding  with  a  woman's  name ; 
A  woman  whose  brave  Spirit  do's  presage 
A  happy  fortune  to  Our  latter  Age, 
The  Noble  Carian  Queen  whose  fame  flys  far 
For  aiding  Xerxes  in  the  Persian  war, 
She,  whose  renown  through  our  East  confine  spreds 
For  Godlike  vertues,  and  heroick  deeds. 
Would  quit  her  fading  claim  did  She  live  now, 
And  place  her  Laurel  on  Zelmura's  brow."  ^ 

Yet  he  would  get  Moarun  out  of  the  way.  She 
not  only  intercedes  in  the  prisoner's  behalf,  but 
commands  the  king  to  obey  her  wishes  ;  and 
she  speaks  so  strongly  that  his  manner  toward 
her  changes. 

"  Oh,  damn'd  Hypocrysie  in  woman  kind."  ' 

The  queen  straightway  does  act  the  hypocrite, 
feigning  all  compliance  to  her  lord's  will,  but 
begs  a  boon  which  is  no  less  than 

"  The  sole  command  o'er  Egypt  for  three  days."  * 

1  Ihid.  Act  1,  Sc.  1.  2  lud.  Act  2,  So.  3. 

8  Ihid.  Act  3,  Sc.  3. 


M  THE  ENGLISH  HEROIC  PLAY 

No  sooner  is  this  granted  than  she  ascends  the 
throne,  has  Moarun  unbound,  and  the  king 
himself,  together  with  his  son,  seized.  She  next 
becomes  aware  of  the  mutual  love  of  her  sister 
Amasis  and  Moarun,  and  therefore  prevents 
his  departure,  and  threatens  to  stab  Amasis 
unless  she  go  to  Moarun,  and  give  him  the 
impression  that  she  no  longer  loves  him. 
Amasis  does  this ;  but  still,  persisting  in  her 
love,  the  queen  draws  upon  her  and  mortally 
wounds  her.  She  attempts  likewise  to  kill 
Moarun  because  he  does  not  love  her,  and 
finally  destroys  herself.  Ambition  is  the  key- 
note to  her  character.     She  threatens  to 

"  Destroy  the  World,  kill  and  disrobe 
Nature  of  her  jierfections,  shake  the  Globe 
To  its  first  Chaos,  and  by  actions  prove, 
Nothing  can  match  a  Woman's  hate  or  love."  ^ 

There  is  much  presumptuous  daring. 

"  And  womens  courage  by  ambition  warm'd 
Dares  laugh  at  danger,  though  all  Hell  stood  arm'd."  ' 

Her  course  of  action  is  plainly  marked. 

"  Shall  theams  of  Vertue  make  Zelmura  pine, 
All  ills  of  womans  frailty  I  resign 
I  bear  a  spirit  brave  and  masculine, 

1  "  Siege  of  Memphis,"  Act  2,  Sc.  2.         »  Ibid.  Act  8,  So.  2. 


CHARACTER  96 

My  pleasures  are  my  Gods,  and  passions  birth, 
Uncurb'd,  and  lawless  is  my  Heaven  or  Earth."  ^ 

V  Zelmura  is  a  "  traiteresse,"  regicide,  death- 
'  dealer  to  a  husband,  and  a  sororicide.  Yet  she 
was  obviously  intended  for  a  heroine.  Her 
audacity,  doubtless,  more  than  any  other  qual- 
ity, won  the  criticism,  "  drawn  with  spirit." 
But  the  other  characters  in  the  play  speak  well 
of  her.  The  king  has  already  alluded  to  her 
"Godlike  vertues  and  heroick  deeds."  Thus 
the  sultan  of  Syria  laments  her  departure  : 

"  Farewell,  thou  type  of  never  dying  fame, 
Whose  lamp  of  honour  shall  forever  flame ; "  ^ 

and  thus  his  son,  Moarun,  the  hero,  whose  life 
she  attempted  : 

"  Injurious  Gods,  and  too  tyrannick  fate, 
That  givest  so  noble  lives  so  short  a  date, 
That  rob'st  divine  perfection  of  her  store. 
Which  thus  at  wast  consum'd  makes  Nations  poor 
Was't  not  enough.  Oh,  Envious,  to  subdue, 
A  Queen  whose  Second  Affrick  never  knew. 
But  you  must  stop  this  Princess  amber  breath, 
And  proudly  triumph  in  a  Virgins  death, 
Heaven  now,  methinks,  ungrateful  do's  appear, 
These  deeds  had  ne're  be  done,  had  I  sat  there."  * 

1  Ibid.  Act  4,  So.  1.  2  m^^  Act  5,  Sc.  5.  »  Ibid. 


98  THE  ENGLISH  HEROIC  PLAY 

Undoubtedly  the  explanation  for  this  purging 
of  her  character  may  be  found  in  the  wondrous 
properties  of  heroic  love. 

"  Souls  are  not  Damn'd  if  they  have  grace  to  Love, 
But  blest  with  charms  are  fixt  ou  Thrones  above."  ^ 

In  spite  of  these  encomiums,  however,  which 

would  place  the  Ambitious  Queen  among  the 

heroines  of  this  kind  of  drama,  her  character  as 

shown  in  her  sentiments  and  deeds  is  sufficiently 

ylike  the  woman^ villains  of  other  plays  to  repre- 

(  sent  them.     The  incidents  in  which  they  are 

[placed  vary  slightly,  and   according    to  these 

rthey  have  more  or  less  chance  to  exercise  their 

proclivities. 

/     In  general,  such  a  character  is  actuated  at 
Vfirst  by  ambition  for  power,  and  in  the  course 
.  pf  the  play  falls  in  love  with  the  hero.     There 
I  IS  usually  no  conflict  between   ambition   and 
Jpve ;     she    simply    resolves    to    attain    both. 
Sometimes  and  in  some   cases  love  is  preemi- 
nent, and  sometimes  ambition,  and  it  is  chiefly 
the  stress  on  one  of  the  two  notes  that  distin- 
guishes the  characters  from  one  another  ;  and 
it  is  the  absence  of  other  notes  (for  jealousy 

1  "  Siege  of  Memphis,'*  Act  3,  Sc.  1. 


CHARACTER  97 

and  revenge  are  but  phases  of  the  invariable 
disappointment,  they  are  never  drawn  subtly 
or  with  distinction)  that  makes  their  common 
resemblances  so  palpable.  Such  characters  are 
Laula,  the  Empress  of  Morocco,  Kiosem  in  the 
"Conspiracy,"  Roxana  in  the  "Siege  of  Baby- 
lon," 1  Salome  in  "  Herod  and  Mariamne,"  and 
Solome  in  "  Herod  the  Great." 

The  characters  arrange  themselves  then  into 
a  few  groups.  Their  construction  is  so  simple, 
so  devoid  of  complexity,  and  they  are  all  so  en- 
veloped and  influenced  by  the  spirit  of  heroic 
love  that  classification  is  not  a  mechanical  mat 
ter  of  mutually  exclusive  types,  but  according 
to  the  emphasis  attached  to  one  elemental  pas- 
sion rather  than  another.  For  the  fourteen 
characters,  more  or  less,  in  every  play,  the  list  of 
"  Persons  Represented  "  itself  not  infrequently 
suggests  and  partly  indicates  their  respective 
functions.  In  the  first  place,  it  is  either  stated 
or  inferred  that  nearly  every  one  of  them  is 
"  in  love  with "  another,  so  that  "  a  lover  "  or 
"the  lover"  after  a  name  would  mean  noth- 
ing ;  it  would  be  a  trite  and  useless  comment. 
Therefore  it  is,  doubtless,  that  the  hero  who  is 

1  "  Siege  of  Babylon."    By  Samuel  Pordage.     1676. 


t-    I 


96  THE  ENGLISH  HEROIC  PLAY 

none  other  than  the  principal  lover  is  not  char- 
acterized in  the  dramatis  personoe^  except  possibly 
by  the  position  of  the  name  on  the  printed 
page.  The  villain  is  next  in  importance,  and 
the  fact  that  he  is  such  is  often  boldly  stated: 
Philampras,^  a  "  Villain "  ;  Ragalzan,^  a  "  Vil- 
lain "  ;  Jasper,^  a  "  Villain "  ;  Bectas,*  "  a 
Rebel "  ;  Smerdis,^  "  an  Imposter,"  and  Sul- 
pitius,'  "of  a  treacherous  nature."  On  the 
other  hand,  Achilles '  is  "  a  great  Champion  of 
Greece  "  ;  Ulysses,^  "  a  wise  Counsellor  " ;  Dio- 
medes,®  "  a  Valiant  Confederate  "  ;  Sertorious,*® 
"  a  brave  Man,  of  a  high  Spirit " ;  and  Mutius," 
"a  lover  of  War."  Don  Antonio  ^  is  typical  of 
"  a  Jealous  Lord."  Of  the  women  Alcinda  ^  is 
"  an  Innocent  Lady  "  ;  Perilla,^*  "  a  rich  Wid- 
dow  " ;  Andromache,^^  "  the  faithful  Wife  of 
Hector "  ;  Cassandra, ^^  "  that  prophesied  the 
Destruction  of  Troy."  The  list  usually  con- 
cludes with  mention  of  a  "Friend"  or  two, 

1  "  Marcelia."  «  "  Conquest  of  China." 

•  "Fatal  Jealousie."    *  "Conspiracy."     *  "Cambyses." 
«  "  Vestal  Virgin,  or  the  Roman  Ladies."    By  Sir  Robert 
Howard.     1665.  ''"  Destruction  of  Troy." 

8  Ihid.         «  Ibid.        10  "  Vestal  Virgin."  "  Ibid. 

"  "  Fatal  Jealousie."  "  "  Conquest  of  China." 

"  ' '  Marcelia. "      "  "  Destruction  of  Troy."      "  Ibid. 


CHARACTER  99 

"  confidants,"  ^  or  some  such  term,  for  the  most 
unimportant  figures. ^ 

In  the  main  these  introductions  are  reliable 
and  more  than  sufficient.  They  not  only  indi- 
cate but  sometimes  exhaust  the  character ;  de- 
scription ends  where  it  begins.  The  principal 
difference  between  heroes  is  not  one  of  nature 
but  of  position,  —  of  degree  of  importance. 
Major  and  minor  lovers  are  the  same  in  kind. 
Zungteus^  is  a  hero  of  the  first  rank.  Like 
him,  on  a  minor  plane,  is  Quitazo  ;  ^  Muly 
Hamet  ^  and  Muly  Labas  ^  bear  the  same  rela- 
tion to  each  other. 

There  is  somewhat  more  variation  among  the 
villains.  They  are  actuated  by  a  greater  num- 
ber of  motives.  Revenge  for  an  insult  prompts 
Cassander  ; ''  Ragalzan  ^  thinks  he  should  have 
been  rewarded  for  his  victories  in  war  by  the 
princess'  hand,  and  was  not ;  and  Zachmi  ^ 
would  avenge  a  brother's  death. 

1  "Confident  and  Creature,"  "Empress  of  Morocco," 
"  Chief  Servant  and  Creature,"  "  Great  Favourite." 

2  There  is  a  "priest"  v?hen  needed,  but  he  is  but  master 
of  supernatural  ceremonies. 

*  "  Conquest  of  China."  *  Ibid. 

^  "  Empress  of  Morocco."       «  /^jj,       7  u  Rival  Kings." 

*  "  Sacrifice."  ^  "  Siege  of  Memphis." 


100  THE  ENGLISH  HEROIC  PLAY 

There  are  so  few  types  that  duplication  and 
repetition  in  the  same  play^  are  necessary  to 
complete  the  list.  Thus  it  happens  that  the 
minor  characters  are  for  the  most  part  pictures- 
in-little  of  the  others ;  among  them  there  is, 
however,  a  little  more  freedom  of  treatment 
than  in  the  case  of  the  major  characters,  and 
slightly  more  conformity  with  human  nature. 
Holzhausen  seems  to  think  that  in  Dryden  a 
minor  character,  per  «e,  is  truer  to  life.  He 
says  :  "  The  weak  Boabdelin  and  his  faithless 
brother,  Abdalla,  in  '  The  Conquest  of  Granada,' 
likewise  the  emperor  in  '  Aureng-Zebe,'  in  a 
word  those  whose  characters  afford  less  oppor- 
tunity for  idealistic  extravagance  are  conceived 
more  realistically  and  drawn  truer  to  nature 
than  the  high-flown  heroes."  ^ 

There  are  a  few  plays  having  an  heroic  ele- 

1  As  to  the  resemblance  of  the  individoals  of  a  given 
type  In  several  plays,  enough  has  already  been  said,  al- 
though the  oft-quoted  extract  from  Martin  Clifford's  Letter 
on  Dryden's  borrowing  from  himself  is  ever  pertinent. 
"  Was  not  this  huff-cap  (Almanzor)  once  the  Indian 
Emperor  and  at  another  time  did  he  not  call  himself  Maxi- 
mine  ?  "  And  ''  You  are  a  strange,  unconscionable  thief, 
that  art  not  content  to  steal  from  others,  but  dost  rob  thy 
poor  wretched  self  too." 

a  Holzhausen,  E.  S.,  xv.  49. 


CHARACTER  101 

ment  that  are  distinguished  by  certain  unusual 
characters  not  found  in  the  mass.  Such  char- 
acters are  in  particular,  Moriphanus  in  Mrs. 
Boothby's  "Marcelia,"  described  in  "The 
Actor's  Names  "as  "a  proud,  silly,  rich  fellow," 
and  both  the  charlatan  witch  and  the  mad 
nurse  in  "  Fatal  Jealousie."  V 

The  scene  of  "  Marcelia  "  is  France,  and  yet 
Moriphanus  is  nothing  other  than  the  Frenchi- 
fied fop  of  contemporary  English  comedy.  The 
witch  might  be  more  appropriately  treated 
under  a  study  of  the  supernatural;  while  the 
Nurse,  faintly  echoing  perhaps  an  original  in 
"Romeo  and  Juliet,"  has,  besides,  a  love  affair 
of  her  own,  and  through  it  is  led  to  murder, 
goes  mad,  and  is  killed  by  the  villain.  The 
role  is  mentioned  in  stage  histories  because  it 
was  played  by  Nokes  with  such  success  that  he 
was  ever  afterwards  called  "Nurse  Nokes." 

The  truth  is,  however,  that  these  characters, 
and  others  like  them,  especially  those  of  the 
comic  sort,  while  not  uncommon  in  other  forms, 
are  so  entirely  contrary  to  the  heroic  mode, 
that  they  may  be  dismissed  from  discussion. 
The  plays  in  which  they  are  found  are  hybrids. 
There  is  now  and  again   an  effort  to  lighten 


102  THE  ENGLISH  HEROIC  PLAY 

the  too  heroic  tone  of  a  piece. ^  But  an  heroic 
play  with  a  sliglit  admixture  of  comedy  is 
different  in  kind  from  a  comedy  whose  serious 
scenes  are  in  rhyme ;  ^  and  in  the  former  this 
admixture  is  seldom  introduced,  seldom  im- 
portant, and  seldom  successful.^ 

^  After  all,  the  effort  to  discover  genuine  indi- 
/  vidualization  within  the  field  proper  is  not  well 

/  repaid.  It  does  not  appear  to  have  been  often 
attempted,  and  the  attempt,  when  made,  was 
simple  and  oratorical. 

"Antipater.  What  is  this,  for  whose  sake  you  thought 
My  Father  might  from  his  Revenge  be  brought? 
Since  my  Disgrace  he  did  to  favour  climb. 

Pholtiel.   To  draw  him,  Sir,  at  length,  requires  much 
time. 
He  is,  to  give  his  Character  in  short. 
In  War  most  fierce,  most  humble  in  the  Court ; 

1  «» 'Tis  hard  when  a  Man's  own  Wit  runs  so  low,  that  he 
is  forced  to  let  in  the  tide  of  another  Man's  Counsel ;  'tis  as 
fatal  and  slavish  as  borrowing  of  money."  —  "Sacrifice," 
Act  2. 

2  Cf.  "  Comical  Revenge." 

»  For  instance.  Ward  (iii.  844)  thus  speaks  of  Orrery's 
"  Altemira,"  "  The  author  has  here  essayed  a  comic  char- 
acter called  Filladen,  but  the  scene  in  which  he  and  the 
other  lords  review  the  ladies  of  the  court  is  as  devoid  of  wit 
as  the  lyrics  interspersed  are  of  charm.** 


CHARACTER  103 

Who  merits  favour,  yet  obtains  it  not, 
In  him  unask'd  an  Advocate  has  got. 
Respect  for  him  he  in  all  hearts  has  bred, 
Because  it  is  not  sought,  but  merited. 
Malice  does  fear  such  Virtue  to  pursue, 
Which  makes  him  favour'd  without  Envy  too."  * 

The  range  of  emotions  is  small. 

"  I  know  not  what  to  do,  I  am  so  torn 
By  love  and  honour,  jealousie  and  scorn  I  "  ' 

This  states  the  usual  gamut.  Since  it  is  so, 
the  tendency  is  for  each  character  to  become 
the  exponent  and  champion  of  a  single  phase, 
a  single  idea,  and  the  championship  of  any 
two  phases  on  equal  terms  results  in  character 
balance. 

The  tendency  is  fostered  by  the  liking  for 
discussion  for  its  own  sake  —  a  distinguishing 
trait  of  this  drama.  For  instance,  a  faithless 
person  is  offset  by  an  example  of  true  friend- 
ship. Seleucus  is  the  false  friend ;  in  the  same 
play,  Demetrius  is  the  true.     He  speaks : 

"I  am  resolv'd  to  do  what  I  did  vow ; 
For  were  I  guilty  of  so  mean  a  Thing, 
As  to  be  false  both  to  my  Friend  and  King 

1  "  Herod  the  Great,"  Act  2. 

2  "Amazon  Queen,"  Act  2,  Sc.  3. 


IM  THE  ENGLISH  HEROIC  PLAY 

And  should  thereby  my  End  in  Love  obtain, 
The  Joy  would  scarce  be  equal  to  my  Pain. 
Perhaps  she  will  not  be  to  me  severe, 
When  sacred  Friendship  only  made  me  err."  ^ 

And  to  "  her  "  he  explains : 

"  Yet  to  a  Trust  Fidelity  is  due ; 
That  Man  who  can  be  faithless  to  his  Friend 
Tho'  'tis  in  Love,  deserves  to  lose  his  End. 

Could  I  but  one  unworthy  action  do, 
I  should  by  it  forfeit  my  Right  in  you  ; 
And  tho'  you  might  to  pardon  me  think  fit, 
Yet  to  myself  I  ne'er  could  pardon  it."  * 

Ptolemy*  and  Lysiraachus  are  rivals  and 
friends.  The  former  cannot  endure  the  rivalry, 
and  desires  a  duel ;  the  other  declines  to  fight 
him  on  the  score  of  friendship.  They  differ 
only  in  their  attitude  toward  friendship. 

Love  and  constancy  are  the  only  qualities 
which  the  hero  and  heroine  expect  to  find  in 
each  other,  and  as  the  minor  characters  are  but 
an  embodiment  of  a  single  phase  of  the  heroic 
idea,  character  development,  as  a  feature,  is  not 
to  be  expected.  There  seems  to  have  been  no 
room  for  it  in  the  scheme.     Even  passion,  cu- 

» •'  Tryphon,"  Act  3,  Sc.  1.  «  Ibid.  Act  4,  8c.  1. 

»  "  Siege  of  Babylon." 


CHARACTER  105 

mulative  from  act  to  act,  till  at  last  it  seems  as 
if  all  human  words  would  fall  short  of  adequate 
significance  —  which  sometimes  passes  for  char- 
acter development — is  not  found;  for  there  is 
frequently  as  much  bombast  in  the  first  act 
as  in  the  last,  and  thus  a  character  literally 
exhausts  his  vocabulary,  his  greatest  resource, 
early,  and  later  he  has  outworn  his  old  weapons, 
and  cannot  find  new.  The  nearest  resemblance 
to  growth  or  any  kind  of  alteration  is  in  the 
case  of  repenting  wrong-doers.  Not  all  do 
repent.  These  either  kill  themselves  or  are 
killed  in  a  characteristic  manner,  villanously 
cursing  unto  death. 

There  are,  however,  some  repenting  villains, 
whose  remorse  is  either  perfunctory  —  to  satisfy 
the  traditional  exigencies  of  the  plot  —  or  more 
naturally,  though  still  superficially,  in  the  nature 
of  character  expression  ;  their  number  is  very 
small.  The  kings  who  desert  their  first  mistress, 
unsuccessfully  woo  a  second,  and  because  of 
their  failure  return  to  the  first,  are  obviously 
in  the  former  class  ;  the  sultan  in  "  Ibrahim," 
is  of  the  latter.  He  is  brought  to  a  realiza- 
tion of  his  folly  by  the  dying  sultana  relating 
to  him  the  growth  and  decline  of  his  love  for 


106  THE  ENGLISH  HEROIC  PLAY 

her.  Gradually,  as  she  speaks,  his  affection 
returns ;  and  she  dies  hearing  and  believing  in 
his  contrition.* 

Although  the  characters  belong  to  types,  they 
do  not  represent  humors.  To  say  nothing  of 
the  comic,  there  is  no  suggestion  either  of 
physical  or  temperamental  peculiarities  to  mark 
either  individuals  or  groups.  Dryden's  use  of 
the  word  "eccentric" — Almanzor  a  character 
of  "  eccentric  virtue "  —  refers  simply  to  a 
slight  deviation  from  absolute  perfection  for  the 
sake  of  human  interest,  such  as  "  a  confidence 
of  himself  almost  approaching  to  an  arrogance." 
There  is  no  hint  of  a  humor. 

1  The  commentators  on  particular  dramatists  are  agreed 
as  to  the  absence  of  character  development.  To  quote  but 
three :  Shad  well  ' '  neither  knew  how  to  develop  character 
nor  to  depict  its  more  subtle  differences."  —  Kenton  West, 
"The  Laureates  of  England."  1895.  "In  Otway  devel- 
opment of  character  ...  is  little  found."  —  Otwat.  Mer- 
maid Series.  Introduction  by  Hon.  Roden  Noel,  p.  xvL 
"Morat's  character  (' Aureng-Zebe')  is  one  of  the  few  in 
Dryden's  heroic  plays  in  which  dramatic  development  is  not 
entirely  lacking.  On  the  contrary,  there  appears  in  him  the 
purifying  influence  of  love  unusual  in  this  kind.  The  stem 
man  dies ;  the  cause  is  not  quite  apparent ;  according  to 
Hettner,  it  is  of  a  broken  heart  (I  c.  p.  01),  after  he  has 
become  reconciled  with  his  faithful  wife,  Melisinda,  and 
convinced  of  the  vanity  of  his  ambitious  aspirations."  — 
HOLZHAUSEN,  E.  S.,  zv.  43. 


CHARACTER  107 

Such  as  it  was,  simple,  not  complex,  rough, 
not  fine,  typical,  not  individualized,  character 
was  doubtless  considered  an  important  part  of 
dramatic  construction.  There  is  every  reason 
to  suppose  that  the  authors,  each  according  to 
his  light,  so  regarded  it.  Not  only  is  there  the 
direct  assertion  of  their  leaders,  but  the  name  in 
itself — heroic  drama  —  implies  necessarily  the 
presence,  and  infers  the  importance  of  a  hero. 
To  portray  him,  as  the  term  was  understood  in 
dramatic  parlance  at  that  time,  must  have  been 
a  primary  object. 

But  how  ?  The  answer  involves  a  definition 
of  the  heroic.  Perhaps  it  might  be  claimed  that 
as  used  here  this  adjective  has  nothing  to  do 
with  the  quality  of  the  character,  but  only 
with  its  exalted  rank,  hence  illustrious,  hence 
heroic.  But  inasmuch  as  the  model  of  the 
ancients  is  so  frequently  alluded  to,  it  would 
seem  that  a  contemporary  interpretation  would 
regard  the  great  epic  figures  as  in  part  originals. 

It  is  plain  that  if  this  was  the  theory,  practice 
did  not  bear  it  out.  It  is  also  plain  that  what- 
ever the  theory,  practice  did  not  bear  it  out. 
For  the  ideal  lacked  consistency.  Here,  accord- 
ing to  Dryden,  are  the  models  of  Almanzor : 


108  THE  ENGLISH  HEROIC  PLAY 

"I  must  therefore  avow,  in  the  first  place, 
from  whence  I  took  the  character.  The  first 
image  I  had  of  him,  was  from  the  Achilles  of 
Homer;  the  next  from  Tasso's  Rinaldo  (who 
was  a  copy  of  the  former),  and  the  third  from 
the  Artaban  of  Monsieur  Calprenede."  ^ 

It  was  an  interesting  experiment,  but  was 
it  possible  for  a  character  so  conceived  to  be 
born  in  the  world  with  a  single  spark  of  genuine 
vitality?  There  seems  to  have  been  a  con- 
fusion in  thought  regarding  the  ancient  heroes 
of  Greece  and  Rome  on  the  one  hand,  and  the 
heroes  of  seventeenth-century  French  romance 
on  the  other.  Now,  the  two  appear  incom- 
patible.    Dryden  says  that: 

"An  heroic  play  ought  to  be  an  imitation, 
in  little,  of  an  heroic  poem ;  and  consequently 
.  .  .  love  and  valour  ought  to  be  the  subject 
of  it."  2 

But  there  was  as  little  love  in  Achilles  and 
^neas  as  there  is  valour  in  the  English  heroic 
plays,  not  to  mention  the  different  meanings 
of  the  terms  in  the  two  instances.  According 
to  Dryden,  Almanzor  is  the  great-grandchild 
of  Achilles,  but  the  real  kinship  is  no  closer 
than  if  the  intervening  generations  had  been 

1  Dryden,  "  Essay  on  Heroic  Plays."  •  Ibid. 


CHAKACTER  100 

indeed  from  the  Homeric   age  to  the  fall   of 
Granada.  1 

The  English  Restoration  hero  was  the  result , 
of  an  attempt  to  make  a  composite  portrait  of/ 
ancient  classical  and  modern  romance  heroes. 
The  latter  became  predominant,  and  finally 
overshadowed  the  other,  —  granting  even  that 
the  other  had  not  from  the  beginning  been 
blurred  beyond  recognition. 

The  incompatibility  of  the  models  had  some- 
thing to  do  with  the  result.  But  much  more 
the  heroic   type  was  as  it  was   because   there 

1  Of  course,  Almanzor  is  nearer  related  to  the  heroes  of 
French  romance  in  general,  and  incidentally,  though  only 
partially,  to  Artaban  in  Calprenede's  "Cleopatre"  in  par- 
ticular. For  instance,  he  goes  over  to  the  enemy  when  the 
king  declines  to  release  a  prisoner  at  his  request,  Cf.  H. 
Koerting,  "  Geschichte  des  Fransoschische  Romans  im  XVII 
jahrhundert,"  1891,  i.  298. 

Dryden's  denial  is  interesting:  "For  my  own  part,  I 
declare  myself  for  Homer  and  Tasso,  and  am  more  in  love 
with  Achilles  and  Rinaldo  than  with  Cyras  and  Oroondates. 
I  shall  never  subject  my  characters  to  the  French  standard, 
where  love  and  honour  are  to  be  weighed  by  drachms  and 
scrilples."  Holzhausen  comments  on  this  as  follows  :  "  At 
any  rate,  this  last  cannot  be  asserted  of  Almanzor,  who, 
furthermore,  was  likely  to,  and  actually  did,  give  offence, 
in  the  age  of  Louis  XIV  and  Charles  II,  on  account  of  his 
contemptuous  attitude  to  crowned  heads."  —  Holzhausen, 
E.  S.,  XV.  44. 


-f 


110  THE  ENGLISH  HEROIC  PLAY 

is  not  any  record  of  a  single  effort  to  produce 
an  "  image  of  human  life "  at  first  hand,  and 
the  failure  is  the  more  noticeable  because  Dry- 
den  himself  applied  the  phrase  to  Almanzor. 
jThere  is  not  a  single  instance  of  human  nature 
/being  either  the  inspiration  or  the  source  of 
I  a  heroic  character.  Knowledge  of  it  was  evi- 
dently not  deemed  either  necessary  or  greatly 
desirable  as  prerequisite  for  dramatic  writing. 
"  Drawing  all  things  as  far  above  the  ordinary 
proportion  of  the  stage  as  that  is  beyond  the 
common  words  and  actions  of  human  life  "  in 
Dryden's  words  must  needs  result,  in  ambitious 
as  well  as  in  inferior  hands,  disastrously :  in  the 
superhu manly  extravagant,  in  general ;  and  at 
the  worst  will  so  manifest  itself  as  (to  apply  to 
a  few  a  phrase  that  Genest  uses  for  a  single 
play)  to  "set  burlesque  at  defiance."*  There 
was  a  lack  of  restraint  in  the  conception  —  "I 

1  The  heroic  drama  is  not  without  merit,  but  it  was 
deficient  in  character  delineation,  and  this  deficiency  has 
afforded  amusement  from  its  own  time.  "  Without  rant" 
—  applied  to  certain  characters  by  the  critics  —  always  sig- 
nifies, comparatively,  considerable  praise,  while  some,  such 
as  Gray  and  Lowell,  comment  on  the  weaker  points  with 
great  reluctance.  Gray  said  enongli  harsh  things  about 
Dryden  before  he  changed  his  attitude,  but  why  Lowell 
declined  to  smile  is  not  easy  to  ascertain. 


CHARACTER  111 

love  intemperance  in  all  I  do,"  says  Caligula; 
an  absence  of  poise,  order,  or  anything  that  re- 
sembled responsibility.  The  desire  for  propor- 
tion is  disappointed.  In  short,  the  Restoration 
hero  and  his  train  proved  to  be  made  of  such 
perishable  stuff  because  their  composition  was 
found  wanting  in  that  sense,  which,  to  the  ex- 
altation of  the  populace  they  despised,  is  called 
common. 


CHAPTER  IV 

SENTIMENT 

I.    Love  and  Honor 

In  the  field  of  sentiment  displayed  by  the 
heroic  play  the  element  of  love  is  universal. 
Occasionally  there  is  a  character  of  importance 
not  affected  by  it,  as  Cassander  in  the  "Rival 
Kings."  So  few  are  such  exceptions  that  love 
seems  all-pervasive.  The  dramatis  personce 
of  the  "  Rival  Ladies  "  mentions  no  character 
without  stating  whom  that  character  is  "in 
love  with."  Other  plays,  in  the  course  of 
action,  reveal  as  much.  This  passion  is  not 
confined  to  human  or  mortal  beings,  but  em- 
braces unearthly  spirits.^  It  is  beyond  human 
control. 

"  We  of  ourselves  can  neither  love  nor  hate. 
Heaven  does  reserve  the  power  to  guide  our  fate."  * 

1  «'T3rrannic  Love." 
a  ••Comical  Revenge,"  Act  1,  Sc.  4. 
112 


SENTIMENT  118 

Its  pains  are  foreordained. 

"  Ye  gods,  why  are  not  hearts  first  paired  above. 
But  some  still  interfere  in  other's  love  ? 
Ere  each  for  each  by  certain  marks  are  known, 
You  mould  them  up  in  haste,  and  drop  them  down ; 
And,  while  we  seek  what  carelessly  you  sort, 
You  sit  in  state,  and  make  our  pains  your  sport."  * 

The  hero  is  most  zealous  to  declare  his  equality 
with  or  superiority  to  destiny  in  other  concerns ; 
but  when  love  is  the  issue,  he  becomes  a  voluntary 
or  involuntary  victim.  It  is  hard  to  exaggerate 
its  importance. 

"  He  who  resigns  his  Love,  tho'  for  his  King, 
Does,  as  he  is  a  Lover,  a  low  Thing ; 
But  as  a  Subject,  a  high  Crime  does  do, 
Being  at  once.  Subject  and  Rebel  too ; 
For  whilst  to  Regal  Pow'r  he  does  submit, 
He  casts  off  Love,  a  greater  Pow'r  than  it."  ^ 

The  passion  is  a  noble  frailty,  and  is  so  de- 
scribed in  successive  plays : 

"  Love  is,  at  worst,  a  noble  Frailty  thought."  ^ 
"  Loves  the  noblest  Frailty  of  \he  Mind."  * 

1  "  Conquest  of  Granada,"  Pt.  2,  Act  3,  Sc.  3. 

2  "  Henry  V,"  Act  6.  Added  meaning  is  lent  to  this 
passage  when  Orrery's  regard  for  royalty,  as  well  as  loyalty, 
and  the  divine  right  of  kings  is  taken  into  consideration. 

8  "  Black  Prince,"  Act  3. 

*  "Indian  Emperor,"  Act  2,  Sc.  2. 


114  THE  ENGLISH  HEROIC  PLAY 

"  It  is  the  noblest  error  of  great  Minds."  * 

Love  is,  in  many  cases,  debasing. 

"  Hast  thou  been  never  base  ?  did  love  ne'er  bend 
Thy  frailer  virtue,  to  betray  thy  friend  ?  "  * 

"  Witness,  ye  powers, 
How  much  I  suffered,  and  how  long  I  strove 
Against  the  assaults  of  this  imperious  love  I 
I  represented  to  myself  the  shame 
Of  perjured  faith,  and  violated  fame; 
Your  great  deserts,  how  ill  they  were  repaid ; 
All  arguments,  in  vain,  I  urged  and  weighed  : 
For  mighty  love,  who  prudence  does  despise, 
For  reason  showed  me  Indamora's  eyes. 
What  would  you  more  ?  ray  crime  I  sadly  view, 
Acknowledge,  am  ashamed,  and  yet  pursue."  ' 

Wrong-doing  at  the  dictate  of  love  is  justified ; 

"  Blame  not  an  act,  which  did  from  love  proceed."  * 

But  glorification  and  justification  of  love  is, 
nevertheless,  the  usual  attitude.  The  attitude  is 
serious,  but  now  and  then  there  is  a  frivolous 
and  sceptical  note. 

"  Love  is  a  Lye  itself ;  there's  no  such  passion  : 
And  Truth  to  Women  makes  men  most  suspected, 
Because  'tis  rarely  practic'd. 
No  woman  takes  herself  to  be  a  Monster ; 

1  •'  Sacrifice,"  Act  2.      2  u  Aureng-Zebe,  "Act  1,  Sc.  1. 

«  Ibid.  Act  2,  Sc.  1. 

*  "  Indian  Emperor,"  Act  1,  Sc.  2. 


SENTIMENT  115 

Yet  she  wou'd  be  so,  if  her  Eyes  were  Stars, 
Her  Lips  of  Roses,  and  her  Face  of  Lilies  : 
Why,  Traps  were  made  for  foxes.  Gins  for  Hares, 
Limetwigs   for    Birds,    and    Lyes    and    Oaths    for 
women."  ^ 

Both  serious  and  derogatory  to  love  is  the  very 
exceptional  remark  of  the  hero  of  the  "  Siege  of 
Memphis  "  on  the  death  of  his  mistress. 

"  From  henceforth  drossy  passions  I'll  remove. 
And  guard  myself  from  the  Curst  baits  of  Love."  * 

Falling  in  love  is  seldom  a  gradual  process,  but 
usually  the  passion  is  born  of  and  with  the  first 
glance,  and  in  one  case,  at  least,  even  before  the 
lover  has  seen  the  object  of  his  affection. 

"  In  Athens  late  you  nip'd  my  forward  g^rowth 
And  from  my  tender  studies  broke  my  youth ; 
Then  call'd  me  to  you  from  my  Country  far 
To  wait  upon  you,  and  to  teach  me  War. 
In  Battailes  toils,  when  you  the  day  had  spent, 
You'd  take  me  to  you  private  in  your  tent ; 
There,  as  to  shelter  in  some  silent  grove, 
You'd  shut  me  in,  and  tell  me  tales  of  Love. 
Your  charming  tongue  did  ope  my  breath  so  wide, 
Love  shot  in  shafts,  on  which  himself  did  ride  : 
When  on  Statira's  Picture  you  wou'd  look, 
Faire  Parisatis  forme  from  you  I  tooke.  "  ' 

*  '*  Sacrifice,"  Act  2.         2  u  gjegg  of  Memphis,"  Act  5. 
8  "  Rival  Kings,"  Act  2. 


116  THE  ENGLISH  HEROIC  PLAY 

Jlxamples  of  instantaneous  love  are  so  numerous 
that  it  is  commonly  considered  a  character- 
istic mark  of  this  kind  of  drama.  The  vastness 
of  his  feeling  and  the  difficulty  of  a  lover's  fate 
are  re-echoed. 

•*  Never  was  any  lover's  fate  so  hard."  * 

"  When  men  name  one  who  lov'd  to  a  Degree 
Ne'er  known  before,  they'll  say  he  lov'd  like  me."  * 

The  effects  of  the  passion  are  various;  some- 
times ennobling ;  as  frequently,  ignoble. 

"  Ne'er  more  expect  to  see  his  Armour  on, 
Perfumed  and  curl'd  in  Silks,  he'll  dance  all  day, 
All  night  his  limbs  on  downy  Quilts  he'll  lay. 
And  sing  his  threats,  and  smile  his  frowns  away. 
Whence  is  this  change? 
Beauty,  Sir ;  is  the  cause."  ' 


Quite  another  strain  and  one  oft  repeated  is 
and, 


♦*  To  lose  her  yet  deserve  her  is  more  fit 
Then  to  posses  her  and  not  Merit  it ; "  * 


"  That  great  Action  I  intend  to  do ; 
If  I  her  Right,  above  my  love  prefer, 
In  that,  by  losing,  I  shall  merit  her. 

1  «'  Tryphon,"  Act  4.  «  "  Henry  V,"  Act  2. 

«  "  Henry  III,"  Act  2,  Sc.  1. 
•"Tryphon,"  Act 3. 


SENTIMENT  117 

And  to  obtain,  not  merit  her,  will  prove 
Less  than  to  lose  her,  and  deserve  her  Love. 
'Tis  worthy  of  my  Flame,  and  of  her  Eyes, 
To  make  Love  be  to  Love  a  Sacrifice."  ^ 

The  distinctive  feature  of  heroic  love  is  that  it 
nullifies  all  other  ideals  in  the  lover,  and  makes 
him  its  absolute  slave.  Whether  it  be  good 
or  evil  depends  on  the  previous  character  of  the 
man,  though  the  lady  concerned  may  often  turn 
the  balance. 

There  is  some  difference  of  sentiment  in 
regard  to  the  possibility  and  desirability  of 
constancy. 

"  Cleopatra.  Oh,  tell  me  first,  have  you  been  e'er  in  love  ? 

Hermione.   Why,  Madam,  do  you  ask? 

Cleopatra.  Because  I  know, 

That  none  can  ease  my  Pain,  that  is  not  so. 

Hermione.   I  was ;  but  Love  to  Friendship  did  submit. 

Cleopatra.  Ah !  'twas  not  Love,  if  ought  could  conquer  it. 
You  lov'd  not  well,  or  knew  his  pow'r  but  ill. 
That  say  you  are  in  Love,  and  are  not  still : 
The  Name  of  Love  for  love  itself  you  took, 
Since  real  Love  can  never  be  forsook. 
Had  yours  been  true,  you  might  as  well  have  swore 
You  do  not  live,  as  that  you  love  no  more."  ^ 

"  But  Love,  when  scorn'd,  is  justly  held  a  fault."  * 

1  "  Henry  V,"  Act  2.  2  u  Tryphon,"  Act  3. 

8  "Black  Prince,"  Act  3. 


118  THE  ENGLISH  HEROIC  PLAY 

In  action,  too,  there  is  variance.  But  in  the 
entire  range  of  the  heroic  drama,  with  hardly  an 
exception,  the  principal  lovers  are  constant  to 
each  other,  and  sometimes  the  expression  of 
constancy  is  adequately  worthy  of  the  feeling. 
Thus  Almanzor  repulses  Lyndaraxa : 

"  Fair  though  you  are 
As  summer  mornings,  and  your  eyes  more  bright 
Than  stars  that  twinkle  in  a  winter's  night; 
Though  you  have  eloquence  to  warm  and  move 
Cold  age  and  praying  hermits,  into  love ; 
Though  Almahide  with  scorn  rewards  my  care,  — 
Yet,  than  to  change,  'tis  nobler  to  despair. 
My  love's  my  soul ;  and  that  from  fate  is  free ; 
'Tis  that  unchanged  and  deathless  part  of  me."  ^ 

Among  the  minor  characters,  moreover,  there 
is  more  final  faithfulness  in  practice  than  in 
theory,  if  the  instances  of  a  man's  returning  to 
his  first  love  be  taken  into  account.  In 
"Henry  III,"  "Marcelia,"  and  the  "English 
Princess"  a  king  deserts  one  mistress  for 
another.  In  each  case  he  returns.  The  cause 
assigned  for  this  action  in  the  last-named  play  is 
his  doubting  the  virtue  of  the  second  mistress, 
and  consequently  going  back  to  the  first ;  but  in 
all  cases,  as  a  matter  of  fact,  he  returns  to  the  first 
» •'  Conquest  of  Granada,"  Pt.  2,  Act  8,  Sc.  3. 


SENTIMENT  119 

without  sincere  renewal  of  affection,  simply  be- 
cause he  cannot  win  the  second,  and  so,  in  com- 
pliance with  dramatic  tradition,  there  is  nothing 
else  left  him  to  do.  Thus  a  return  to  constancy 
may  in  itself  mean  nothing,  but  may  even  bear 
the  mark  of  superficiality  and  insincerity. 

Jealousy  occupies  a  subordinate  place  in  the 
heroic  drama  as  a  whole,  for  the  reason  that 
it  is  a  characteristic  of  the  inner  being,  and 
this  drama  deals  primarily  with  the  external. 
The  lover  is  busy  outri vailing  his  rival  in 
ways  most  acceptable  to  the  lady,  or  in  phy- 
sical combat  against  the  enemy ;  and  in  the 
event  of  victory  in  either  case,  he  believes 
marriage  the  reward,  and  he  is  not  often  in  a  posi- 
tion to  question,  or  to  have  a  right  to  question 
the  attitude  of  the  lady  toward  himself. 

"  Examine  jealousie  and  it  will  prove 
To  be  the  careful  tenderness  of  love. 
It  can  no  sooner  than  Celestial  fire 
Be  either  quench'd,  or  of  itself  expire."  * 

Chorus  of  Wives 

1 

"  1.   This  cursed  jealousie,  what  is't  ? 
2.  'Tis  Love  that  has  lost  itself  in  a  Mist. 

1  "  Siege  of  Rhodes,"  Pt.  2,  Act  1. 


120  THE  ENGLISH   HEROIC  PLAY 

3.  'Tis  Love  being  frightened  out  of  his  wits. 

4.  'Tis  Love  that  has  a  fever  got; 
Love  that  is  violently  hot ; 

But  troubled  with  cold  and  trembling  fits. 
'Tis  yet  a  more  unnatural  evil : 
Chorus.  '  Tis  the  God  of  Love,  'tis  the  God  of  Love, 
possest  with  a  deviL 


1.  'Tis  rich  corrupted  Wine  of  Love, 
Which  sharpest  Vinegar  does  prove. 

2.  From  all  the  sweet  Flowers  which  might  Honey 
make, 

It  does  a  deadly  poyson  bring. 

3.  Strange  serpent  which  itself  doth  sting  I 

4.  It  never  can  sleep,  and  dreams  still  awake. 

5.  It  stuffs  up  the  Marriage-bed  with  thorns. 
Chorus.  It  gores  itself,  it  gores  itself,  with  imagin'd 

horns."  ^ 

"  He  is  with  jealousie  possest, 
That  Arrow,  once  withdrawn,  must  ever  rove. 
O  weakness,  sprung  from  mightiness  of  Love."  ' 

Aureng-Zebe  is  an  especially  jealous  lover,  and 
some  attention  is  given  to  the  subject  in  the 
play. 

**  Small  jealousies,  'tis  true,  inflame  desire  ; 
Too  great,  not  fan,  but  quite  blow  out  the  fire."  • 

1  "  Siege  of  Rhodes,"  4th  Entry.  «  Ibid. 

•  "Aureng-Zebe,"  Act  4,  Sc.  1. 


SENTIMENT  121 

Orrery's  Tudor  soliloquizes  upon  this  passion  in 
these  lines : 

"  But,  Fate,  thou  art  unjust  in  making  me 
To  quit  the  Love,  yet  keep  the  jealousy ; 
Which  is  of  Love's  fair  tree  the  foulest  Fruit, 
A  branch  whose  Nourishment  offends  the  Root. 
Shall  Jealousy  a  Power  o'er  Judgment  gain, 
Tho'  it  does  only  in  the  Fancy  reign? 
With  Knowledge  thou  art  inconsistent  still. 
The  Mind's  foul  Monster,  whom  Fair  Truth  does  kill. 
Thy  Tyranny  subverts  e'en  Nature's  Laws ; 
For  oft  thou  hast  Effects  without  a  cause  ; 
And,  which  thy  strength  or  weakness  does  detect, 
Thou  often  hast  a  cause  without  Effect. 
In  all  thou  dost,  thou  ever  dost  amiss  ; 
Seest  what  is  not,  or  seest  not  that  which  is. 
Whilst  thou  dost  live.  Sickness  does  thee  pursue ; 
And  he  who  cures  thee,  needs  must  kill  thee  too."  * 

Next  to  love,  honor  is  commonly  supposed  to 
be  the  most  considerable  element  in  the  heroic 
drama.  The  mere  use  of  the  term  "heroic," 
with  which  love  and  honor  are  traditionally 
associated,  is  unquestionably  responsible  for  this 
popular  misconception.  For  honor  is  only  spe- 
ciously an  important  feature,  as,  notwithstand- 
ing the  usual  connotations  with  it  of  certain 
ideals,  the  heroic  play  was  too  late  a  growth  to 

1  "  Henry  V,"  Act  4. 


ISS  THE  ENGLISH  HEROIC  PLAY 

have  the    element    of   honor    either   of   great 
extent  or  of  vital  nature. 

The  word  is  used  in  two  senses :  as  synony- 
mous with  spiritual  virtue,  and  as  a  course  of 
human  conduct  prescribed  by  a  code.  As  the 
latter,  it  impels  a  man  to  fight  to  defend  a 
woman. 

"  Har.  Jun.  Yet  yield  me  Ysabinda,  and  be  safe. 

Tow.  I'll  fight  myself  all  scarlet  over  first ; 
Were  there  no  love,  or  no  revenge, 
I  could  not  now  desist,  in  point  of  hpnour."  ^ 

Least  of  all  may  a  man  fight  a  woman,  even 
though  she  be  a  warrior,  and  challenge  him. 

"  As  thou  art  a  woman  I  am  Crost, 
And  all  the  hopes  of  my  revenge  is  lost: 
For  to  that  Sex  my  honour  makes  me  bend. 
Not  fight  against  but  with  my  blood  defend."' 

It  regulates  the  etiquette  of  rivals. 

"  Since  we  are  rivals,  honour  does  command 
We  should  not  die  but  by  each  other's  hand."  • 

It  must  be  confessed,  however,  that  "  Honour's 
precepts,"  *  anything  that  implies  the  existence 

1  "  Amboyna,  or  the  Cruelties  of  the  Dutch  to  the  Eng- 
lish Merchants."    By  John  Dryden.     1673.     Act  4,  Sc.  8. 
a  "  Siege  of  Memphis,"  Act  1,  Sc.  2. 
«  "  Conquest  of  Granada,"  Pt.  2,  Act  4. 
«  "  Aureng-Zebe,"  Act  2,  Sc.  1. 


SENTIMENT  123 

of  a  code  or  "  Rules  of  Honour,"  ^  is  but  rarely 
spoken  of,  and  never  in  a  manner  to  attract, 
much  less  compel,  attention. 

In  other  words,  the  heroic  drama,  in  the  ex- 
pression of  sentiment,  is  not  chivalrous.  It  is 
this  that  identifies  it  in  spirit  with  the  court 
for  which  it  was  written,  and  divorces  it  from 
kindred  continental  types.  There  is  perhaps 
not  more  than  a  single  mention  of  chivalry 
throughout  its  pages,  and  that  is  where  Moarun 
refers  to  his  sword  as 

"  This  brave  badge  of  Chivalry."  ^ 

None  of  the  heroes  is  vital  enough,  or  in  the 
true  sense  honorable  enough,  to  reveal  any  of 
that  fine  essence  of  gentlemanhood  by  which  the 
popular  conception  of  chivalry  is  hallowed.  As 
Courthope  says,  "  Of  the  two  great  principles 
of  Love  and  Honour,  .  .  .  one  was  now  held  to 
be  non-existent,  and  the  other  was  utterly  per- 
verted. ...  If  ever  there  was  a  time  when  the 
instincts  of  chivalrous  action  (were)  discour- 
aged, it  was  in  the  reign  of  Charles  II."  ^    The 

1  "  Herod  the  Great,"  Act  2. 

2  "  Siege  of  Memphis,"  Act  1,  Sc.  2. 

'  W.  J.  Courthope,  "Addison,"  English  Men  of  Letters 
Series,  pp.  12,  13. 


1S4  THE  ENGLISH  HEROIC  PLAY 

inspiration  was  too  distant  and  the  age  was  too 
unsympathetic  for  such  an  ideal.  Honor  is  also 
used  as  synonymous  with  virtue,  virtue  mean- 
ing chastity  in  woman,  and,  in  man,  bravery  in 
battle  and  loyalty  to  the  state. 

"  Honoar  is  colder  virtue  set  on  fire."  * 
It  is 

"  A  raging  fit  of  virtue  in  the  soul."  ' 

This  is  the  usual  meaning  of  the  word  in  the 
heroic  play.  But  whether  as  a  code  or  as  vir- 
tue it  is  more  often  contemned  than  respected. 
Dryden's  dispraise  of  the  code  was  the  result 
of  reflection,  not  accidental,  and  is  shown  both 
in  his  critical  and  creative  work.  He  says, 
"You  see  how  little  .  .  .  great  authors  .  .  . 
esteem  the  point  of  honor,  so  much  magnified  by 
the  French,  and  so  ridiculously  aped  by  us."^ 

*'  The  points  of  honour  poets  may  produce ; 
Trappings  of  life,  for  ornament  not  use : 
Honour  which  only  does  the  name  advance, 
Is  the  mere  raving  madness  of  romance."  * 

»  "Siege  of  Rhodes,"  Pt.  1,  1st  Entry. 
2  "  Indian  Emperor,"  Act  2,  Sc,  2. 
»  Dryden,  "  Essay  on  Heroic  Plays." 
*  "  Aureng-Zebe,"  Act  2.  Sc.  1. 


SENTIMENT  125 

But  as  virtue,  also,  honor  is  sneered  at,i  both 
by  Dryden  and  other  heroic  dramatists. 

"  Honour  is  but  an  itch  in  youthful  blood, 
Of  doing  things  extravagantly  good. 
We  call  that  virtue  which  is  only  heat 
That  reigns  in  youth,  till  age  finds  out  the  cheat."  ^ 

"  If,  when  a  crown  and  mistress  are  in  place, 
Virtue  intrudes  with  her  lean  holy  face. 
Virtue's  then  mine  and  not  I  virtue's  foe. 
Why  does  she  come  where  she  has  nought  to  do  ?  "  '  • 

Honor  is  not  an  ever  present  note  in  the  heroic 
drama,  but  when  it  occurs  it  is  usually  placed 
in  opposition  to  love,  and  almost  invariably  to 
its  own  disadvantage.  Cortez'  determination 
to  follow  love,  when  face  to  face  with  the  two 
passions,  is  typical. 

"  Honour,  be  gone  I  What  art  thou  but  a  breath  ? 
I'll  live  proud  of  my  infamy  and  shame, 
Graced  with  no  triumph  but  a  lover's  name ; "  * 

1  For  praise  of  honor,  on  the  other  hand,  cf.  "  Aureng- 
Zebe,"  Act  5,  Sc.  1 ;  "  Siege  of  Rhodes,"  3d  Entry;  "Ama- 
zon Queen,"  Act  3,  Sc.  1;  "Don  Carlos,"  Act  4,  Sc.  1, 
and  Orrery,  passim. 

2  "Indian  Queen,"  by  Sir  Robert  Howard  and  John 
Dryden,  1665.     Act  3,  Sc.  1. 

8  "Conquest  of  Granada,"  Pt.  1,  Act  2,  Sc.  1. 
*  "  Indian  Emperor,"  Act  2,  Sc.  2. 


126  THE  ENGLISH   HEROIC  PLAY 

Yet  those  who  disregard  honor  and  give  them- 
selves up  to  love  cannot  escape  a  consciousness 
of  baseness  and  seek  to  gloss  it  over  by  dwell- 
ing upon  the  "nobility"  of  the  passion  that 
enslaves  them.  The  speech  of  Montezuma  in 
the  "  Indian  Emperor "  represents  the  kind  of 
sophistication  by  which  the  heroes  endeavor 
to  justify  themselves : 

"  Not  that  I  fear  the  utmost  fate  can  do 
Come  I  the  event  of  doubtful  war  to  know ; 

•        •♦•♦*♦ 
My  motive  from  a  nobler  cause  does  spring. 
Love  rules  my  heart,  and  is  your  monarch's  king; 
I  more  desire  to  know  Alnieria's  mind, 
Than  all  that  heaven  has  for  my  state  designed."  * 

There  are  occasionally  exceptions  to  the  gen- 
eral rule  that  love  triumphs  over  honor  and 
every  other  duty  or  passion.  The  "Indian 
Emperor"  satisfactorily  illustrates  both  rule 
and  exception.  In  four  of  the  characters  of  this 
play  love  and  honor  are  conflicting  motives. 
Three  of  the  four  succumb  to  love.  The 
fourth,  Guyomar,  in  the  presence  of  his  mis- 
tress, Alibech,  declares  his  allegiance  to  honor. 
The  lady,  who  holds  the  orthodox  doctrine  of 

1  "  Indian  Emperor,"  Act  2,  Sc.  1. 


SENTIMENT  127 

heroic  love,  scorns  a  suitor  who  is  not  passion's 
slave,  and  promptly  gives  him  his  dismissal : 

"  Guy.  What  I  have  heard  I  blush  to  hear :  and  grieve, 
Those  words  you  spoke  I  must  your  words  believe. 
I  to  do  this !  I  whom  you  once  thought  brave, 
To  sell  my  country  and  my  king  enslave  ? 
All  I  have  done  by  one  foul  act  deface, 
And  yield  my  right  to  you  by  turning  base  ? 
What  more  could  Odmar  wish  that  I  should  do, 
To  lose  your  love  than  you  persuade  me  to  ? 
No,  Madam,  no,  I  never  can  commit 
A  deed  so  ill,  nor  can  you  suffer  it : 
'Tis  but  to  try  what  virtue  you  can  find 
Lodged  in  my  soul. 

Alib.   In  all  debates  you  plainly  let  me  see 
You  love  your  virtue  best,  but  Odmar  me  : 
Go,  your  mistaken  piety  pursue."  ^ 

Although  Almahide,  in  the  "  Conquest  of 
Granada,"  like  most  heroines,  remains  true  to 
her  husband,  yet  love  and  the  lover's  position 
are  exalted  to  that  degree  over  everything  else 
in  the  world  that  it  is  possible  for  Almanzor, 
representing  the  type,  thus  to  address  the  hus- 
band of  the  woman  he  loves  without  detriment 
to  his  own  heroic  character : 

"  Your  love  and  honour !  mine  are  ruined  worse  : 
Furies  and  hell  1  — What  right  have  you  to  curse  ? 

1  Ibid.  Act  4,  So.  2. 


128  THE  ENGLISH  HEROIC  PLAT 

Dull  husband  as  you  are, 

What  can  your  love,  or  what  your  honour  be  ? 

I  am  her  lover,  and  she's  false  to  me."  ^ 

Heroic  love  is  then  the  greatest  element  in  the 
heroic  play.  It  permeates  the  whole.  It 
moulds  other  elements  into  itself,  or  sinks 
them  into  insignificance,  and  the  few  instances 
in  which  importance  is  attached  to  them  may 
be  considered  either  as  a  sign  of  individual 
originality,  or  at  least  as  a  departure  from  the 
customary  sources  of  inspiration. 

II.  Reason 

In  the  Epistle  to  the  Reader  prefixed  to  the 
"Destruction  of  Jerusalem"^  the  author  says: 

"But  perhaps  a  man  ought  not  to  talk  rea- 
son in  love :  I  confess  since  love  has  got  the  sole 
possession  of  the  stage,  reason  has  had  little  to 
do  there  ;  that  effeminate  prince  has  softened  and 
emasculated  us  the  vassals  of  the  stage.  The 
reason  why  the  off-spring  of  the  moderns  are 
such  short-liv'd  things,  is  because  the  Genii  that 
beget  'em  are  so  given  to  women ;  they  court 
nothing  but  the  ladies'  favours,  with  them  they 
waste  all  their  strength,  whenas  the  lusty  an- 

»  "Conquest  of  Granada,"  Pt.  2,  Act  4,  Sc.  3. 
'  "  Destruction  of  Jerusalem,  by  Titus  Vespasian."    In 
Two  Parts.    By  John  Crowne.     1677. 


SENTIMENT  129 

cients  who  fed  on  the  wholesome  diet  of  good 
sense,  and  used  themselves  to  the  strong  manly 
exercises  of  reason  have  been  the  Fathers  of 
vigorous  issue,  who  have  lived  longer  then  the 
oldest  Patriarchs,  and  are  like  to  live  as  long  as 
there  are  men.  I,  who  am  a  friend  both  to  love 
and  good  sense,  endeavoured  to  reconcile  'em, 
and  to  bring  reason  into  favour,  not  with  hopes  to 
rule ;  I  desired  only  to  procure  him  some  little 
ofifice  in  the  stage,  but  I  find  it  made  an  uproar, 
love  would  not  endure  such  an  innovation,  it 
threatned  his  settled  government;  and  reason 
is  not  at  all  popular ;  the  ladies  knew  not  what 
to  make  of  his  conversation,  and  the  men  gen- 
erally sleep  at  it ;  that  'I  see  but  little  hopes  of 
his  preferment,  which  I  am  sorry  for,  since  what 
future  being  I  shall  enjoy,  I  shall  owe  solely  to 
him.  Titus  and  Berenice  as  great  gallants  as 
they  have  been  in  France,  and  as  good  a  shew 
as  they  have  made  in  England,  have  not  such  a 
substantial  fortune  to  maintain  them  for  future 
ages,  but  I  am  afraid  will  be  reduced  to  depend 
on  Phraartes  for  a  livelihood.  The  whinings 
of  love,  like  a  pretty  new  tune,  please  for  a 
while,  but  are  soon  laid  aside,  and  never  thought 
of  more ;  the  same  notes  perhaps  may  help  to 
compose  another,  but  the  old  air  is  altered,  and 
forever  forgotten." 

Championing  reason's  cause  is,  then,  unusual. 

"  Oh  1    Why  is  Love  call'd  Nature's  highest  Law, 
When  Title,  Man's  Invention,  does  it  awe  ? 

K 


180  THE  ENGLISH  HEROIC  PLAY 

But  'tis  the  Strength  which  reason  does  impart, 

That  makes  my  Blood  give  Rules  thus  to  my  Heart. 

If  Nature  Reason  on  us  did  bestow, 

Love,  Nature's  Dictate,  'twould  not  overthrow, 

But  Reason  is  a  bright  resistless  Fire, 

Which  Heaven,  not  Nature  does  in  us  inspire. 

It  is  not  Nature's  Child,  but  Nature's  King, 

And  o'er  Love's  Height  does  us  to  Glory  bring. 

As  Bodies  are  below,  and  Souls  above, 

So  much  should  Reason  be  preferred  to  Love : 

Since  Glory  is  the  Souls  most  proper  Sphere, 

It  does  but  wander,  when  it  moves  not  there."  * 

More  commonly  there  is  an  exaltation  of  love 
over  reason,  and  a  consciousness  of  their  in- 
compatibility. 

"  Abdal.  Reason  was  given  to  curb  our  headstrong  wilL 

Zul.  Reason  but  shows  a  weak  physician's  skill, 
Gives  nothing  while  the  raging  fit  does  last. 
But  stays  to  cure  it,  when  the  worst  is  past. 
Reason's  a  staff  for  age,  when  nature's  gone 
But  youth  is  strong  enough  to  walk  alone.* 
Love  ne'er  was  to  Reason's  Rules  confined.' 
To  one  in  Love  do  not  of  Reason  speak ; 
For  Love  is  never  strong,  till  Reason's  weak."  * 

But  according  to  some,  Reason  cures  Love  and 
succeeds  it. 

1  "  Henry  V,"  Act  2. 

*  "  Conquest  of  Granada,"  Pt.  1,  Act  2,  So.  1. 
•"Black  Prince,"  Act  3. 

*  "  Tryphon,"  Act  6. 


SENTIMENT  131 

"  Her  coyness  has  made  me  her  Sex  abjure, 
Where  kindness  is  not,  Reason  is  my  cure,^ 
But  Reason  having  now  regain'd 
That  Throne  where  Passion  lately  reign'd ; 
Those  Beauties  which  did  charm. 
Now  may  delight,  but  cannot  harm."  ^ 


III.    Woman 

The  heroic  drama  takes  it  for  granted  that 
reason  plays  a  small  part  where  woman  is  con- 
cerned. 

"  Abner.  May  it  not,  Sir,  provoke  her  to  despair. 
Seeing  another  in  that  Glory  share? 

Herod.   Perhaps  it  may  —  perhaps  too  —  it  may  not, 
Few  women  are  by  Reason  lost  or  got."  ^ 

Man's  superiority  in  other  respects  also  is  taken 
for  granted.  The  following  is  more  than  the 
expression  of  an  individual : 

"  I've  thought  his  sister  worthy  of  my  love. 
And  shall  descend  t'accept  her  as  my  bride, 
If  I'm  petition'd  for't  on  every  side."  * 

There  is  little  verbal  evidence  of  regard  for 
female  virtue. 

"  Madam,  I  go ;  but  go  so  charm'd  from  hence, 
Both  by  your  Eyes  and  vertues  influence, 

1 ' '  Altemira, "  Act  2 .  «  j^i^l. 

»  "  Herod  the  Great,"  Act  1.     *  "  Charles  VIII,"  Act.  1. 


132  THE  ENGLISH   HEROIC  PLAY 

That  'tis  impossible  for  me  to  know 
To  which  I  most  of  Adoration  owe."  ^ 

But  the  more  usual  thought,  prominent  in 
Dryden,  is  the  denunciation  of  virtue,  par- 
ticularly of  virtuous  marriage,  because  of  its 
interference  with  love. 

"  In  vain  of  pompous  chastity  y'  are  proud ; 
Virtue's  adultery  of  the  tongue,  when  loud, 
I,  with  less  pain,  a  prostitute  could  bear, 
Than  the  shrill  sound  of  —  Virtue  !  Virtue  !  hear. 
In  unchaste  wives 

There's  yet  a  kind  of  recompensing  ease ; 
Vice  keeps  them  humble,  gives  them  care  to  please ; 
But  against  clamorous  virtue  what  defense? 
It  stops  our  mouths  and  gives  your  noise  pretense. "  '^ 

"  Love  scorns  all  ties  but  those  that  are  his  own. 
Chains  that  are  dragged  must  needs  uneasy  prove 
For  there's  a  godlike  liberty  in  love."  • 

«  Love  is  a  god,  and  like  a  god  should  be 
Inconstant  with  unbounded  liberty, 
Rove  as  he  list  —  "  * 

"  Marriage,  thou  curse  of  love  and  snare  of  life, 
That  first  debased  a  mistress  to  a  wife  ! "  ' 

»  "Henry  V,"  Acts. 

«  "  Aureng-Zebe,"  Act  2,  Sc.  1. 

»  Ibid,       *  "  Don  Carlos,"  Act  3,  Sc.  1. 

•  "Conquest  of  Granada,"  Pt.  2,  Act  3,  Sc.  1. 


SENTIMENT  133 

It  is  but  one  step  to  the  curse  of  the  sex, 
although  there  are  not  many  such  curses. 

"  Ah  !  Traitress  1     Ah,  Ingrate !     Ah,  faithless  mind  I 
Ah,  sex,  invented  first  to  damn  mankind ! 
Nature  took  care  to  dress  you  up  for  sin ; 
Adorned  without;  unfinished  left,  within. 
Hence  by  no  judgment  you  your  loves  direct ; 
Talk  much,  ne'er  think,  and  still  the  wrong  afPect. 
So  much  self  love  in  your  composure's  mixed, 
That  love  to  others  still  remains  unfixed  ; 
Greatness,  and  noise,  and  show,  are  your  delight."  ^ 

In  spite  of  the  exaltation  of  love,  there  is  not 
much  laudation  of  womankind  in  the  abstract ; 
such  laudation  is  rather  of  individuals. 

These  plays  are  not  "  problem  plays." 
There  is  but  one  suggestion  of  a  nineteenth- 
century  remonstrance. 

"  Sehast.   But  hold,  I  wrong  Eugenia,  if  I  blame 
Her,  and  not  you  alone,  for  all  her  shame. 
You  rob'd  her  of  her  Chastity  by  force, 
Though  fear  of  shame  still  kept  her  from  remorse. 

Fran.  Pish  I     Force !     That  was  her  policy  to  you, 
She  did  no  more  than  what  all  Women  do. 
Seem  to  resist  what  they  do  most  desire. 
To  raise  the  flame,  yet  seem  to  cool  the  fire ; 
Believe  this  Truth,  Sebastian,  Women  can 
Resist  it,  and  perform  it  more  than  man. 

1  "  Aureng-Zebe,"  Act  4,  Sc.  1. 


134  THE  ENGLISH  HEROIC  PLAY 

Sebast.   Thus  like  the  Devils  we  at  first  betray 
Their  Innocence,  then  blame  on  them  we  lay ; 
As  if  their  guilt  could  have  another  cause 
Than  that  which  it  from  our  Temptation  draws."  * 

Though  woman's  role  be  a  leading  one,  and 
love,  her  proverbial  domain,  the  eternal  theme, 
analysis  of  this  passion  and  analysis  of  her 
character  are  lacking.  The  impression  of 
blankness  on  the  mind  is  caused  not  posi- 
tively, but  rather  negatively,  by  what  is  not 
said.  What  is  affirmed  of  her  is  for  the  most 
part  conventional;  man's  superiority,  woman's 
unreasonableness,  dispraise  of  marriage,  though 
virtue  is  oftener  avoided  than  discussed.  There 
is  no  ideal  of  womanhood  at  all  at  issue ; 
children  are  not  introduced,  nor  is  there  men- 
tion of  any  kind  of  domestic  life ;  nor  is 
there  differentiation  between  woman  and  man 
in  occupation  or  morals.  She  is  neither  better 
nor  worse  than  he ;  there  is  no  deceit,  treachery, 
murder,  or  any  manner  of  crime  in  which  she 
may  not  partake.  Love  and  war  are  the  only 
spheres  of  action  ;  in  the  first  she  ever  is,  and 
amazons,  professional  or  amateur,  are  common. 

1  "Fatal  Jealousie,'*  Act  3. 


SENTIMENT  186 

IV.    Friendship 

In  the  strife  between  love  and  honor,  honor 
as  a  dramatic  motive  frequently  takes  the  place 
of  or  is  synonymous  with  friendship.  Hence 
the  relation  between  love  and  friendship  is 
identical  with  that  between  love  and  honor. 
As  a  sentiment  friendship  exhibits  greater 
variety  than  love,  inasmuch  as  there  are  no 
shades  of  gradation,  no  degrees  in  heroic  love ; 
one  lover  does  not  differ  from  another  in  zeal, 
but  each  loves  to  the  utmost,  as  no  one,  accord- 
ing to  himself,  had  ever  done  before. 

Love  is  unconnected  with  any  other  passion, 
while  friendship  is  often  allied  with  the  sense 
of  duty  toward  a  sovereign,  and  always,  ex- 
cept in  one  important  instance,  it  is  intimately 
and  paradoxically  associated  with  rivalry  in 
love.  In  degree,  moreover,  it  varies  from  the 
mutual  formal  regard  of  courtiers,  through 
the  relation  between  confidant  and  master  or 
mistress,  of  subject  to  emperor,  of  companion- 
ship among  equals,  to  an  intense  affectionate 
devotion. 

Owen  Tudor,  an  Englishman  in  the  train  of 
Henry  V,  is  at  the  beginning  of  the  play  a  re- 


186  THE  ENGLISH  HEROIC  PLAY 

jected  suitor  of  Princess  Katharine  of  France. 
That,  in  itself,  would  not  make  him  despair, 
but  the  king  loves  the  same  lady  and  became 
enamored  of  her  in  the  first  place  through  his 
subject's  description.  In  ignorance  of  Tudor's 
passion  the  king  requests  him  to  go  to  Katharine 
as  a  messenger  of  love  from  himself, 

"  That  my  Friend  should  let  my  Princess  know 
My  flames  are  such  as  martyr'd  Saints  sustain."  ^ 

Owen  does  this.  Afterwards  he  becomes  so 
melancholy  that  the  king,  for  friendship's  sake, 
desires  to  know  the  source  of  his  grief,  and  on 
much  petitioning  is  told.  Whereupon  he  re- 
solves to  do  as  much  for  Tudor  as  has  been 
done  for  himself,  which  is  no  less  than  to  plead 
his  rival's  cause  before  the  princess. 

This  situation  is  an  adequate  illustration  of 
the  indissoluble  connection  between  friendship 
and  loyalty  to  a  king.  The  same  relation  exists 
in  other  plays,  but  this  is  its  most  striking  in- 
stance. The  two  sentiments  are  mixed;  they 
are  associated  together,  but  the  spiritual  supe- 
riority of  the  former  over  the  latter  is  insisted 
upon.      The  mutual   faithfulness  of  the  men 

i"Henry  V,"  Act2. 


SENTIMENT  137 

is  prominent ;  rivalry  is  the  channel  of  the  ex- 
pression of  this  devotion  which  shows  itself  in 
their  fairness  toward  each  other,  and,  is  aug- 
mented on  Tudor 's  part  by  a  sense  of  justice  in 
resolving  upon  his  self-sacrificing  course  through 
realization  of  his  monarch's  greater  worth  as 
a  man. 

There  is  a  conception  of  the  use  of  friends, 

"  For  Ease  of  Sorrow,  Friends  from  Heav'n  were  sent " ; 

and  abstract  meditation  on  the  subject  of  friend- 
ship, as  of  the  other  elemental  passions,  is  a 
feature  of  most  concrete  instances,  where  the 
type  is  embodied.  There  are  certain  plays, 
themselves  conspicuously  heroic,  which  contain 
an  element  of  friendship  noticeable  in  itself. 
Some  of  these  instances  are  remarkable,  and 
for  this  reason  a  consideration  of  friendship 
as  a  phase  of  heroic  sentiment  is  assured. 
Nevertheless,  it  is  its  prominence  in  individ- 
ual plays  rather  than  its  presence  in  the  body 
at  large  that  entitles  it  to  consideration.  For 
it  is  not  in  all  the  plays .  but  is  confined  to 
the  compositions  of  a  few  men.  Pordage  and 
Bankes  are  among  them,  and  in  Orrery  it  is  so 
much  in  evidence  as  to  leave  the  impression  of 


188  THE  ENGLISH   HEROIC   PLAY 

an  individual  characteristic.  The  constant 
repetition  in  his  work  of  situations,  the  subject 
of  which  is  friendship,  is  very  noticeable,  and  is 
plainly  a  defect. 

The  fact  that  friendship  as  a  prominent  ele- 
ment of  dramatic  interest  is  confined  to  a  few 
plays,  in  contrast  to  the  mass  of  heroic  senti- 
ment which  is  peculiar  to  no  one,  two,  or  three 
writers,  but  was  of  universal  use,  suggests  orig- 
inality, and  in  the  narrow  sense  of  implying 
a  distinguishing  trait  between  Orrery  and  his 
dramatic  contemporaries  the  suggestion  is  valid 
enough.  But  a  plea  for  originality  applied  to 
any  phase  of  the  English  heroic  drama  must 
needs  be  made  cautiously. 

V.    The  People 

The  following  extracts  indicate  how  thor- 
oughly anti-democratic  the  sentiment  of  the 
heroic  drama  is.  Oroondates  and  his  confi- 
dant, on  mention  of  the  ambassadors,  express 
themselves  as  to  the  common  people  in  this 
manner : 

"yl  ra.  'Twere  fit  you  talk'd  of  something  that  procures 
A  grateful  peace  with  your  Ambassadors. 


SENTIMENT  139 

Oroo.   These  are  the  furies  of  the  people's  Brain, 
That  dare  to  sit  upon  a  monarch's  raign ; 
Not  all  the  fire,  nor  all  the  fiends  of  Hell 
Can  act  the  rage  that  in  Plebeians  dwell; 
When  they  are  mad  and  know  not  what  'tis  for, 
Like  winds  they  bustle,  and  like  waves  they  roar ; 
On  those  above  'em  look  with  Envies  stings, 
And  mad  because  they  cannot  all  be  Kings. 

Ara.   At  Kings  they  let  their  gorged  stomachs  fly, 
Belching  out  treason,  sprung  from  Luxury, 
Behold  with  censures  still  bright  Majesty ; 
As  base  astronomers  look  up  and  pray 
Into  the  glorious  Planets  of  the  sky. 

Oroo.  Mercy  the  curse  of  Monarchs  in  this  age. 
That  breeds  this  plague,  that  shou'd  be  quell'd  by  rage ; 
I'le  like  a  Lion  shake  my  angry  locks 
And  fright  the  Souls  out  of  this  Coward  Herd, 
And  make  them  put  their  Necks  into  their  Yoaks  — 

Amh.   Great  Prince  — 

Oroo.   Begone  —  You  shall  have  your  reward. 
You  thought  me  dead,  or  els  from  pow'r  debar'd ;  — 
I'le  send  you  home  with  Chaines  upon  your  feet, 
With  that  reward  you  shall  your  Masters  greet. 

\_Exeunt  Amb.  hawing."  ^ 

The  old  emperor  in  "  Aureng-Zebe  "  calls 

"  The  vulgar,  a  scarce  animated  clod, 
Ne'er  pleased  with  aught  above  them,  prince  or  God."  ^ 

And  the  hero  says, 

"  The  people's  love  so  little  I  esteem."  ' 

1  "  Rival  Kings,"  Act  4. 

2  "Aureng-Zebe,"  Act  3,  Sc.  1.  » Ibid. 


140  THE   ENGLISH   HEROIC   PLAY 

Such  are  some  of  the  statements.  As  a 
matter  of  fact,  verbal  anti-democratic  expres- 
sions are  not  numerous,  but  that  there  are 
none  contradictory  in  sentiment  to  the  above 
strengthens  the  case.  It  may  be  recalled 
that  Shakespeare  repeatedly  puts  into  the 
mouths  of  many  characters  words  equally 
derogatory  to  the  merit  of  everyday  citizens, 
the  difference  being  that  in  him  the  citizen's 
cause  is  championed,  even  though  unfairly,  both 
by  the  presence  of  citizens  upon  the  stage,  and 
also  their  utterance  of  certain  sentiments  that 
are  sufficient  at  least  to  arouse  discussion.  In 
other  words  the  people  are  discussed,  if  not  im- 
partially championed,  in  Shakespeare.  But  in 
the  heroic  drama  there  is  no  such  discussion. 
There  is  no  appearance  of  a  representative  of 
the  people,  and  they  themselves  are  as  a  rule 
completely  left  out  of  consideration. 

VI.    Patriotism 

Patriotism  is  shown  in  the  heroic  play  either 
by  the  author  laying  the  scene  of  his  literary 
labors  in  his  own  country,  or,  less  superficially, 
in  the  repetition  of  the  virtues  of  Englishmen. 

There  are  four  English   plays  with  English 


SENTIMENT  141 

scene  and  theme.  ^  In  them,  if  anywhere,  pre- 
supposition of  the  presence  of  the  patriotic  note 
is  most  natural.  "  Edgar,  or  The  English 
Monarch"  augurs  well  for  a  title.  But  here 
is  nothing  English  except  the  names,  although 
the  Advertisement  has  it  that  "  The  Histories 
examined,  nothing  in  the  Fable  can  seem  Ro- 
mantick  or  affected.  But  I  must  appeal  from 
the  late  Epitomizers,  who  make  Edgar  point- 
blank  guilty  of  Ethelwold's  Death,  without 
any  sufficient  ground  from  Antiquity." 

To  the  modern  reader  the  fable  does  seem 
affected ;  the  characters  influence  it,  and  it  is 
expressly  stated  as  to  Edgar  that 

"  Unking'd,  in  Love,  we  represent  him  here."  ' 

His  kingship  is  not  concerned.  He  is  a  lover, 
the  lover,  nor  more  nor  less.  In  the  play  itself 
there  is  not  even  a  shadow  of  a  patriotic  senti- 
ment. In  the  prologue  to  a  tragedy  three  years 
earlier  than  "  Edgar "  is  this  auspicious  an- 
nouncement : 

"  To  plain  Hollinshead  and  downright  Stow 
We  the  coarse  web  of  our  Contrivance  owe. 

1  "Black  Prince,"  "Edgar,"  "English  Princess," 
"Boadicea," 

*  "  Edgar."    Address  to  the  King. 


14S  THE  ENGLISH  HEROIC  PLAY 

Greece,  the  first  Mistress  of  the  Tragic  Muse, 

To  grace  her  Stage  did  her  own  Heroes  chuse ; 

Their  pens  adorn'd  their  Native  Swords ;  and  thus 

What  was  not  Grecian  past  for  Barbarous. 

On  us  our  Coimtry  the  same  duty  lays, 

And  English  Wit  should  English  Valour  raise. 

Why  should  our  Land  to  any  Land  submit 

In  choice  of  heroes,  or  in  height  of  wit? 

This  made  him  write,  who  never  writ  till  now, 

Only  to  show  what  better  pens  should  do. 

And  for  his  pains  he  hopes  he  shall  be  thought 

(Though  a  bad  Poet)  a  good  Patriot."  » 

Disappointment  follows  —  truly  not  in  the  ex- 
pectation of  "bad  poetry,"  which  is  realized 
perfectly.  The  play  is  English,  in  the  sense 
that  "  The  Persons,"  as  the  cast  is  called,  bear 
historical  names,  in  some  mention  of  events  and 
places,  and  in  preserving  the  outline  of  the 
popular  story  of  the  latter  years  and  death  of 
Richard  III,  but  laudation  of  country  or  coun- 
trymen is  too  slight  to  notice. 

The  author's  implication  that  he  was  doing 
something  new  in  treating  British  history  does 
not  seem  to  have  been  strictly  just  to  one  of 
his  illustrious  contemporaries,  for  the  "  History 
of  Henry  V,"  written  in  rhyme,  was  acted  in 

1  "English  Princess.*' 


SENTIMENT  143 

1664,  and  in  it,  inconsiderable  as  praise  of 
countrymen  and  countrywomen  is,  there  is 
more  than  in  the  "English  Princess." 

"  But  Fame  can  want  no  Theme,  when  she  does  sing 
Of  English  Swords  led  by  an  English  King  " 

"  England  still  affords 
Beauties  resistless  as  the  English  Swords."  * 

The  French  Queen  chides  her  counsellor  for 
esteeming  their  foes  too  highly,  but  he  answers 
"Ourselves  we  best  excuse  in  praising  them."* 

But  Caryl's  inference  was  probably  true  in 
a  more  narrowly  literal  sense,  as  the  scene  of 
"  Henry  V "  is  laid  in  France,  and  it  is  more- 
over a  "  History,"  while  the  only  "  Heroic 
Tragedy "  treating  an  English  theme,  with 
scene  in  England,  that  would  have  a  claim  to 
priority,  is  the  "  Black  Prince,"  also  by  Orrery, 
which  was  produced  six  months  after  the  "  Eng- 
lish Princess."^ 

One  play  has  no  more  patriotism  than  the 
other,  in  spite  of  their  prologues.  That  of  the 
"Black    Prince"   is   "Spoken   by  the   Genius 

1  "  Henry  V,"  Act  1.  2  jj^-q;. 

*  The  obvious  but  inconsequential  comparison  between 
Caryl  and  Shakespeare  in  this  single  respect  was  made  by 
Warburton  and  amplified  by  (Jenest.    Cf.  Genest,  i.  74. 


144  THE  ENGLISH  HEROIC  PLAY 

of   England,  holding  a  Trident  in  one  Hand, 
and  a  Sword  in  the  other." 

*'  Is  England's  Genius,  that  victorous  name, 
Which  shakes  the  World,  and  fills  the  mouth  of  Fame, 
So  much  forgot,  as  you  misspend  your  Wit 
(Which  my  great  Deeds  as  gentle  might  have  writ) 
To  court  a  Fancy,  or  improve  a  Dream, 
And  seek  new  Worlds  for  a  less  noble  theme? 
Can  you  in  arms  conspiring  Nations  see, 
And  think  on  anything  but  Fame  and  me  ? 

This  Sword,  which  in  French  blood  so  often  dy'd, 
Intail'd  Success  on  the  young  Edward's  Side, 
Resigned  to  you,  shall  all  those  Arts  exceed. 
Which  made  him  triumph,  and  that  Kingdom  bleed. 
Their  frighted  lilies  shall  confess  their  Loss, 
Wearing  the  crimson  Liv'ry  of  your  Cross ; 
And  all  the  World  shall  learn  by  their  Defeat, 
Our  Charles,  not  theirs,  deserves  the  name  of  Great." 

Thus  among  the  earliest  of  the  rhymed  trage- 
dies there  were  two  as  native  in  subject  as  their 
manner  was  foreign  —  the  manner  became  fash- 
ionable, and  dozens  of  plays  were  so  written, 
but  native  matter  was  of  infrequent  recurrence. 
There  was,  besides,  "  Boadicea,  Queen  of  Brit- 
ain."^ But  in  this  play  the  patriotic  note, 
which  consists  of  lauding  the  bravery  of  the 

1  *' Boadicea,  Queen  of  Britain."  By  Charles  Hopkins. 
1697. 


SENTIMENT  146 

natives,    is    neither    prominent    nor    otherwise 
remarkable. 

The  single  play  in  which  Dry  den  had  a  legit- 
imate right  to  express  patriotism  was  "Am- 
boyna,"  a  political  pamphlet  in  dramatic  form, 
where  his  loyalty  to  country  as  opposed  to 
political  loyalty  is  shown  by  making  the  Eng- 
lishmen in  the  play  models  of  all  that  is  vir- 
tuous —  the  more  sharply  to  contrast  them  with 
the  perfidious  Dutch  —  and  by  seldom  inserted 
lines,  such  as 

"  Wounds  but  awaken  English  courage."  ^ 

The  dramas  with  English  scene  reveal  no 
patriotism  in  content;  the  story  of  a  British 
king's  conquest  of  the  French  country  and 
princess  contains  very  little  more.  In  "  Henry 
III,"  however,  where  all  the  characters,  the  scene, 
and  theme  are  French,  the  English  patriotism  of 
the  author  is  more  in  evidence  than  in  all  the 
other  plays  combined. 

"  His  scenes,  such  as  they  are,  in  France  are  laid ; 
Where  you  may  see  the  ancient  English  Trade, 
Either  in  beating  France  or  giving  aid. 
Such  vertue  reign'd  then  in  our  smiles  or  frowns, 
Those  did  defend,  as  these  could  conquer  crowns. 

1  "  Amboyna,"  Act  4,  Sc.  3. 


146  THE  ENGLISH  HEROIC  PLAT 

These  Miracles  were  in  Eliza's  reign 
Whose  left  hand  France  and  Holland  did  sustain, 
And  whose  right  hand  both  baffled  Rome  and  Spain. 
Whilst  England  only  could  the  World  subdue; 
Nay,  found  a  new  one  out,  and  reign'd  there  too ; 
Judge  then  what  now  Great  Brittany  may  do ! 
Since  now  her  helm  a  greater  Prince  does  guide 
Who  has  th'  advantage  of  his  Sex  beside. 
Tho  here  our  poet  rather  would  make  known 
His  country's  reputation  than  his  own. "  ^ 

Two   Frenchmen   are   speaking   of    English 
prowess  and  of  Elizabeth. 

"  Car.  Yet  Heav'n  reveng'd  our  wrongs ;  as  witness  bear 
The  English  Lions ;  who  so  oft  did  tear 
Our  lilies  from  their  stems ;  and  did  advance 
Their  ensigns  on  our  walls,  and  conquer'd  France. 

Guise.   Look  but  how  judgment  prosecutes  them  still  I 
What  England  once  has  done,  again  she  will. 
That  British  harpy,  who  robs  all  the  gain. 
And  watches  o'er  the  golden  Mines  of  Spain  ; 
Whose  Canvas  wings  about  the  World  have  flown, 
As  by  that  charm  she'd  circle  in  her  own. 
A  Virgin  !  Who  her  neighb'ring  Kings  outbraves. 
Scorning  to  match  with  her  intended  slaves. 
This  Heretick,  this  Woman,  dares  combine 
Against  our  League,  and  with  Navar  does  join."  ' 

The  bravery  of  the  English  and  their  queen  is 
dwelt  on. 

1  "  Henry  HI."    Prologue. 

«  Ibid.  Act  1,  Sc.  1. 


SENTIMENT  147 

"  Cap.   Th'  English  (valianter  perchance  than  wise) 
Bravely  defi'd  'em  scorning  a  surprise. 
But  a  Defiance  that  their  rage  became ; 
Whose  words  were  Bullets,  and  whose  breath  was  flame. 

King.   The  brav'ry  of  these  English  are  so  great 
It  is  no  shame  that  us  so  oft  they  beat. 

Nav.   That  British  Heroine,  without  controul, 
Asserts  the  truth,  no  Sex  is  in  the  soul. 
Valiant  and  wise  as  Pallas  does  appear ; 
A  Goddess  arm'd  with  beauty  and  a  Spear. 

******* 

Cap.  France,    Scotland,    Ireland,   Flanders,   Holland 
boasts 
The  sev'ral  Ships  surpris'd  upon  their  Coasts. 
The  British  Lyons  glutted,  took  their  rests, 
Vouchsafing  oifals  to  the  lesser  Beasts. 

Nav.   Thus  in  a  word  th'  effects  of  seven  years  cost, 
By  English  valor  in  seven  days  were  lost. 

King.  The  World  shall  never,  nor  has  ever  seen 
A  braver  Nation  or  a  braver  Queen. 
Her  Neighbors  justly  may  receive  her  Law. 
Since  she  rules  those  who  keep  the  World  in  awe."  ^ 

Joan  of  Orleans  was  learned  in  "  Necromantick 
art,"  and  therefore  it  was  that  her 

"  Powerful  charms  made  the  English  quit  the  field ; 
No  mortal  force  else  could  have  made  'em  yield."  ^ 

1  Ihid.  Act  4,  Sc.  1. 

2  Ibid.  Act  2,  Sc.  2. 


148  THE  ENGLISH  HEROIC  PLAY 

VII.     Summary 

This  kind  of  drama  is  so  permeated  with  the 
spirit  of  heroic  love  that  other  elements  are 
always  secondary,  and  investigation  reveals 
only  the  extent  of  their  comparative  insignifi- 
cance. The  note  of  patriotism  which  might  be 
expected  from  the  mere  titles  of  some  of  the 
plays,  and  which  would  strengthen  the  case  of 
the  native  as  opposed  to  the  foreign  constitu- 
tion of  the  species,  is  the  more  noticeable 
wherever  it  is  heard,  because  not  general. 
The  treatment  of  woman  was  inspired  by  a 
moribund  literary  tradition  which  could  not 
give  her  the  vitality  either  of  sixteenth  or  of 
eighteenth  century  creations.  The  restriction 
of  all  characters  to  a  single  social  class  —  that  of 
y  illustrious  birth  —  shows  how  exceedingly  nar- 
row the  sphere  of  the  heroic  play  was  in  its 
sympathies,  and  consequently  how  few  the 
ideas  must  be,  and  what  a  limited  compass  they 
had  to  range  in.  Love  and  honor  were  the 
only  themes,  and  by  honor  was  meant  all  that 
was  not  love,  and  no  matter  under  what  name 
this  went,  whether  war,  ambition,  reason,  or 
friendship,  it  was  considered  as  a  form  of  honor; 


SENTIMENT  149 

its  mission  was  only  to  act  as  a  foil  for  the  dis- 
play of  love;  and  only  in  this  comprehensive 
sense  of  honor  representing  all  that  was  not  love 
were  love_  and  honor  the  subjects  of  the  heroic  X 
play.  Love  is  invariable,  permanent,  and  domi- 
nant. Honor  is  of  varying  importance.  But 
under  the  name  of  ttendship  it  reaches,  espe- 
cially in  Orrery,  its  highest  and  most  influen- 
tial form.  There  the  strife  between  it  and 
love  is  a  strife  between  equals,  and  honor  is 
exalted.    Usually,  however,  it  loses  the  victory : 

"  Honour  to  this  exploit  would  me  soon  call, 
But  that  love's  Magick  does  surmount  it  all."  ^ 

So  a  discussion  of  the  sentiment  of  the  heroic 
play  in  its  various  forms  of  attitude  toward 
ambition,  reason,  friends,  country,  and  country- 
men must  needs  return  to  its  starting-point — 
heroic  love. 

The  prologues  and  epilogues  to  these  plays 
are  perhaps  the  most  fertile  mine  of  informa- 
tion in  regard  to  them.  They  frequently  sug- 
gest that  the  dramatists  themselves  were  quite 
aware  of  what  they  were  doing  in  depicting 
this  passion,  aware  of  its  power,  of  its  un-Eng- 
lish origin,  and  of  its  recent  importation : 
1  "  Amazon  Queen,"  Act  2,  Sc.  2. 


150  THE  ENGLISH  HEROIC  PLAY 

"  How  many  has  our  Rhimer  kill'd  to  day? 
What  need  of  Siege  and  Conquest  in  a  Play, 
When  Love  can  do  the  work  as  well  as  they? 
Yet  'tis  such  Love  as  you've  scarce  met  before : 
Such  Love  I'm  sure  as  English  ground  ne'er  bore."  * 

1  • '  Ibrahim. '  ♦    Epilogue. 


CHAPTER  V 

GENERAL   TRAITS 

The  English  heroic  drama  has  the  greatest 
variety  in  its  scene  of  action,  its  historical  set- 
ting chronologically  and  geographically  consid- 
ered. In  time  it  extends  from  the  "  state  of 
innocence  "  ^  to  a  period  contemporary  with  its 
own  rise.  It  were  doubtless  safer  to  confine  its 
space  to  the  earth,  in  spite  of  the  frequency  of 
supernatural  intervention,  and  of  the  confident 
assertion  by  certain  of  the  characters  as  to  their 
control  over  their  own  actions  after  death. 
The  hero  struts  over  five  continents,  with  little 
method  in  his  journeyings.  He  is  in  England, 
France,  Italy,  Hungary,  with  a  preference 
always  for  the  imperfectly  known  and  more 
remote  lands. 

These  plays  may  be  classed  with  reference  to 
their  geography  as   Eastern   or   Oriental,  and 

1  "  State  of  Innocence  and  Fall  of  Man."  By  John  Dry- 
den.     1674. 

161 


162  THE  ENGLISH  HEROIC  PLAY 

Western  or  Occidental.  The  former  group 
lays  its  scenes  in  Asia,  Africa,  and  the  Moor- 
ish and  Ottoman  parts  of  Europe  ;  the  latter, 
in  classical  and  Christian  Europe  and  America. 
Of  the  Eastern  plays  concerned  with  ancient 
subjects,  "  Antony  and  Cleopatra "  and  the 
"  Siege  of  Memphis  "  are  African ;  the  others 
are  Asiatic.  Sometimes  the  scene  is  pictur- 
esquely indefinite,  as  "  The  Banks  of  the  River 
Thermidon,  on  the  Borders  of  the  Amazon's 
Country,"  but  usually  it  is  indicated  by  a  single 
word,  Eden,  Persia,  Syria,  with  Jerusalem  and 
Babylon  as  centres.  The  stories  of  this  class 
cover  a  period  from  the  beginning  of  things 
to  the  fall  of  Jerusalem.  There  is,  more- 
over, a  modern  Eastern  group  that  lays  its 
scenes  in  the  centuries  between  the  period  indi- 
cated by  the  title  of  Settle's  play,  the  "  Con- 
quest of  China  by  the  Tartars, "  and  a  time 
contemporary  with  the  author  of  the  plays 
themselves.  The  scenes  of  the  modern  as  of 
the  ancient  group,  are,  in  the  main,  Asiatic. 
Persia  is  common  ground  for  both  groups.  In 
the  modern  group  the  action  is  played  out 
among  other  lands  in  China,  the  East  Indies 
and   India,  Morocco,  the    Island    of    Rliodes, 


GENERAL  TRAITS  153 

Granada,  Turkey,  and  the  region  where  the 
Turks  fought  the  Hungarians. 

The  classical  plays  with  a  well-known  histor- 
ical background  are  the  "  Destruction  of  Troy," 
"  Caligula,"  and  "  Sophonisba,"  ^  a  story  of  the 
Carthaginian  wars.  Maximin  in  "Tyrannick 
Love"  is  the  Roman  Emperor.  The  scene  of 
the  "  Vestal  Virgin "  is  of  course  Roman. 
The  greater  number  of  the  modern  Western 
plays  are  historical,  sometimes  written  with 
obvious,  though  secondary,  didactic  purpose. 
Such  are  for  Spain,  the  "  Great  Favourite,  or 
the  Duke  of  Lerma ";  in  connection  with 
Italy,  "Charles  VIII  of  France."  Peru  and 
Mexico  are  the  scenes  of  the  "  Indian  Queen," 
and  Mexico  of  the  "  Indian  Emperor." 

There  are  several  plays  of  French  and  Eng- 
lish history,  treated  either  separately  or  inter- 
nationally. Such  are  "  Henry  III,"  the  "  Black 
Prince,"  "  English  Princess,"  "  Edgar,"  "  Mar- 
celia."  The  historical  element  varies  in  its 
conspicuousness  and  definiteness.  In  the  "  Eng- 
lish Princess  "  there  is  much  the  same  cast  as 
in  Shakespeare's  "  Richard  III "  ;    the  histor- 

1  "Sophonisba,  or  Hannibal's  Overthrow."  By  Nathan- 
iel Lee.    1676. 


IM  THE   ENGLISH   HEROIC  PLAT 

ical  part  in  "Boadicea"  and  in  "Edgar"  is 
less  familiar,  and  a  little  more  vague;  and 
in  "Marcelia"  there  is  only  the  statement 
that  the  scene  is  France  and  Sigismund  is 
king.  Most  of  the  plays  are  serious.  There 
are  a  few,  however,  in  this  group,  in  which 
the  comedy  element  predominates.  They  are 
concerned  with  the  present  time,  as  is  implied 
by  the  tone  of  "  Marriage-a-la-Mode "  and 
"  Rival  Ladies " ;  and  is  directly  stated  in 
"Comical  Revenge."  In  the  first  and  second 
the  scene  is  Sicily ;  in  the  last  named,  be- 
cause of  freer,  less  conventional  treatment, 
London. 

The  heroic  element  in  a  drama  need  not, 
and  in  fact  not  infrequently  does  not,  dominate 
the  whole  composition;  and  consequently  giv- 
ing attention  to  it  in  some  cases  draws  one 
to  the  border-land  of  comedy.  But  a  pure 
heroic  play  was  commonly  styled  tragedy,  and 
tragedy  avoided  then,  as  had  always  been 
its  wont,  native  contemporary  subjects.  If 
the  scene  were  England,  as  it  often  was,  it 
was   of    a    past    age ;    if  the   time  were   the 

^  present,  as  in  "_^nr^"g-7(Pb*'i"  the  scene  was 

'   remote. 


GENERAL  TRAITS  165 

"  But  still  the  modest  stage 
Forbears  to  represent  the  present  age. 
Let  forreign  stories  matter  here  supply, 
Old  Tales  and  known  are  best  for  Tragedy."  ^ 

Such  was  a  seventeenth-century  utterance  of  an 
established  tradition  ;  but  in  practice  it  was 
regarded  only  partially  —  to  the  extent  of  keep- 
ing away  from  contemporary  Christian  Europe 
for  matter.  The  idea  of  depicting  the  life  of  the 
age  in  serious  drama  did  not  obtain  as  yet,  and 
consequently  known  Europe  was,  in  a  manner, 
sacred.  But  there  was  no  other  region  that 
might  not  become  at  any  time  the  scene  of  a 
"dramatic  poem."  For,  conventional  as  this 
drama  is  for  the  most  part  in  plot,  character, 
diction,  and  sentiment,  there  seems  to  have  been 
an  adventurous  desire,  on  the  part  of  its  authors, 
to  enter  upon  new  lands  untrodden  by  their 
predecessors.  Dryden,  by  temperament  so  fear- 
ful of  being  radical,  chooses  as  the  subject  of  a 
tragedy  a  contemporary  prince,  though  of  a  far- 
off  country,  and  the  first  English  play  whose 
scene  is  laid  in  America,  is,  doubtless,  the 
"  Indian  Queen  "  of  Dryden  and  Howard,  with 
its  conscious  epilogue, 

1  Edw.  Ravencroft's  Epilogue  to  the  "Conspiracy." 


IM  THE  ENGLISH  HEROIC  PLAY 

"  You  have  seen  all  that  this  old  world  can  do. 
We,  therefore,  try  the  fortune  of  the  new." 

The  "Empress  of  Morocco"  is  another  ex- 
ample. "  This  play,  which  for  no  other  Merit, 
durst  take  Sanctuary  here,  throws  itself  at  your 
Feet,  as  your  Own  ;  the  Story  of  which,  I  owe 
to  your  Hands,  and  your  honorable  Embassy 
into  Affrica."  ^  While  tragedy  seldom  dealt 
with  contemporary  subjects,  and  never  unless 
the  scene  was  remote,  the  domain  of  comedy 
was  broader  because  of  its  traditional  right  to 
satirize  its  own  land  and  age. 

The  heroic  drama  is  historical  in  the  sense 
that,  with  few  exceptions,  there  is  sufficient 
foundation  in  fact  to  determine  the  approxi- 
mate time  and  place  of  action,  —  but  often 
that  is  all.  The  name  of  the  male  protagonist, 
—  Caligula,  Richard  III,  Herod,  —  indicates  as 
much.  But  the  definiteness  and  completeness 
of  this  element  vary  in  the  entire  body  of  plays 
as  well  as  in  that  part  dealing  with  French  and 
English  history  exclusively.  They  vary  in 
degree  from  such  tales  as  that  of  Oroondates  and 

*  Epistle  Dedicatory  to  the  Right  Honourable  Henry,  Earl 
of  Norwich  and  Earl-Marshall  of  England,  etc.,  to  the 
"Empress  of  Morocco." 


GENERAL  TRAITS  157 

Statira,  and  the  Mexican  stories,  which  are  on 
the  border-land  of  fiction  and  romance,  to  plays 
like  "  Henry  III  "  and  "  Henry  V,"  in  which 
the  audience  must  have  been  instructed,  would 
they  or  no,  so  abundant  are  the  historical  allu- 
sions. Such  plays  and  their  like  remind  one 
that  the  stage  even  then,  though  less  than  with 
the  Elizabethans,  must  have  been  regarded  as 
a  popular  medium  for  historical  instruction. 
To  be  sure,  this  instruction  frequently  and  most 
naturally  is  associated  with  the  inculcation  of 
patriotism.  Since  the  historical  background 
is  essentially  so  meaningless,  the  twistings  of 
facts  are  not  to  be  wondered  at,  complaint 
against  them  is  trite,  and  anachronisms  are 
without  significance. 

Notwithstanding  the  fact  that  many  of  the 
characters  bear  historical  names,  and  their  coun- 
try is  nominally  mentioned,  the  absence  of  scen- 
ery, character  delineation,  or  diction,  whereby 
to  connect  any  drama  with  the  soil  of  its  scene 
of  action  is  well-nigh  complete.  The  reason 
for  this  is  not  far  to  seek.  The  poet's  aim  was 
to  paint  a  hero.  And  his  conception  of  a  hero 
was  arrived  at  from  the  prevailing  fashionable 
literary  tradition  of  love  and  honor,  and  it  was 


168  THE  ENGLISH  HEROIC  PLAY 

conceived  without  any  regard  to  race  whatso- 
ever. 

The  neglect  of  racial  traits  possibly  might 
pass  without  comment  in  a  previous  age. 
But  it  is  pertinent  to  ask,  although  in  vain, 
why  that  adventurous  spirit  which  led  drama- 
tists in  successful  search  of  new  regions,  new 
races,  was  not  accompanied  by  the  investigat- 
ing curiosity  that  should  differentiate  Cliina, 
Mexico,  Rome,  one  from  another,  and  Chinese 
and  Mexicans  and  Romans.  There  is  no  local  y' 
color  —  nothing  but  nomenclature.  Because 
of  the  "  Ynca  "  one  is  supposed  to  be  in  Peru, 
because  of  the  "  wall "  in  China,  and  again,  be- 
cause of  "  The  actors'  Names," 

"  Fancy  you  have  two  hours  in  Turkey  been."  ^ 

But  even  the  actors'  names  are  sometimes  of  no 
avail.  In  "  Marcelia  "  the  scene  is  France,  and 
the  characters,  for  aught  said  to  the  contrary, 
French  ;  but  their  names  are  non-committal  ; 
Sigismund,  Melinet,  Lotharius,  Euryalus,  Al- 
meric,  Valasco,  Lucidore,  Peregrine,  Moripha- 
nus,  Graculus,  Du-Prette,  Meraspas,  Philampras, 
Marcelia,    Desha,    Calinda,    Erisinia,    Arcasia, 

Perilla. 

1  "Conspiracy."    Epilogue. 


GENERAL  TRAITS  169 

There  is  a  variety  in  character  ranging  from 
vagueness  and  superficiality,  of  which  examples 
are  common,  to  definiteness  and  the  result  of 
thought,  such  as  Solyman  in  "Mustapha";  and 
from  the  purely  fictitious  and  semi-mythologi- 
cal to  historical  personages  presented,  like 
Caligula,  somewhat  in  biographical  detail.  But 
this  is  apart  from  the  question  concerning  char- 
acter delineation  of  racial  traits.  There  is  as 
little  local  color  shown  in  the  words  and  actions 
of  the  characters  as  there  is  of  differentiation  in 
the  scene.    Even  such  a  bald  statement  as  Perez', 

"  I  am  a  Spaniard,  Sir ;  that  implies  honour,"  ^ 

is  exceedingly  rare.  Zungteus  is  not  Tartar, 
Achilles  is  not  Greek  ;  and  the  monarchs  of  the 
various  kingdoms  of  the  earth,  so  far  as  vital 
relation  to  their  native  lands  is  concerned, 
might  exchange  thrones  without  fear  of  de- 
tection or  of  comment. 

The  comedy  of  the  period  is  notorious  for 
impropriety  of  thought  and  language.  The 
tragedy  is  the  reverse  of  this.  The  prologues 
and  epilogues  to  tragedies  are  sometimes  in  the 
comic  manner,  coarse  and  indecent ;  but  they 

1  "  Amboyna,"  Act  2,  Sc.  1. 


100  THE  ENGLISH  HEROIC  PLAY 

are  extraneous  to  the  play  itself,  in  which  the 
language  is  as  far  removed  as  may  be  from 
the  improper.  There  is  very  little  even  of  a 
broader  sort  of  gallantry  than  is  now  the  fash- 
ion, but  which  might  be  found  then  and  later 
in  the  strictest  society.  Contemporary  comedy 
abounded  in  questionable  situations.  In  the 
tragedy  a  bedroom  scene,  in  which  any  import- 
ance attaches  to  the  fact,  as  such,  is  rare  indeed. 
There  is  one  such  instance  in  which  the  in- 
nocence of  the  characters  concerned  is  finally 
proved,^  and  there  is  another  in  which  ladies 
are  rescued  from  the  boisterous  rudeness  of  sol- 
diers.^   In    Dryden   moreover  —  seldom    else- 

1  "Black  Prince,"  Act  4. 
*  Enter  First  Soldier, 
•'  Sold.  Two  Ladies,  Sir,  are  fall'ii  into  our  snare. 
Capt.  Dost  think  I  came  with  women  to  make  War  ? 
Sold.   When  seen,  you'l  think  it  much  the  safer  choice 
To  charge  the  strongest  Regiment  in  Blois. 
Capt.   Are  they  so  beautiful  ? 
Sold.   Gad !  Captain,  more 
Than  you,  or  all  the  World  e'r  saw  before, 

Capt.   Go,  bring  'em  in.    Sure  they  can  do  no  harm, 

[Exit  Sold, 
I'm  cold,  and  they  may  serve  to  make  me  warm. 

Enter  Second  Soldier  with  Ladies, 
Capt.  Gad,  beautiful !    Fair  Lady,  I'm  for  you  ; 
The  other  you  may  share  betwixt  you  two. 

[  TTiey  hand  her.    Arm,  runs  out. 


GENERAL  TRAITS  161 

where  —  there  are  occasional  scenes,  in  which 
the  diction  as  well  as  the  situation  itself  exhib- 
its sensuousness  verging  on  sensuality.^ 

In  this  body  of  plays  there  are  not  any  adages 

Arm.   Heav'n  lend  me  Wings  ! 

1st  Sold.  There  after  thee  I'l  flye, 
Rather  than  miss  my  Quarry.  lExit. 

M  Sold.  So  will  I,  [JExit. 

Capt.  Come,  madam,  come.  IHands  Gabriel. 

Gab.  What  do  you  mean  to  do  ? 

Capt.   I  am  in  Love. 

Qab.  'Tis  now  no  time  to  woo. 

Bless  me !    Your  looks  are  strange. 

Capt.   I  mean  to  prove 
All  ways,  to  quench  my  raging  flames  of  Love. 

^Strives  with  her. 

Gab.   I'l  dye  first. 

Capt.   How  !    Deny  me  such  a  bliss ; 
Which,  when  I  have  obtain'd,  you  cannot  miss. 

Gab.  Not  miss  mine  Honour  ? 

Capt.   No,  'tis  very  right, 
No  more  than  miss  your  shadow  in  the  night. 
I  am  resolv'd.  [Forces  her  out. 

Gab.  Just  Heav'n  vouchsafe  your  aid 
Unto  a  Virgin  treacherously  betray'd  ! 

[Cries  loudly  as  sAe's  drag'' d  forth.    Exeunt. 

Enter  Navak,  arm^d,  with  Soldiers. 

Nav.  This  way  I  heard  the  cry. 
[He pursues,  after  clashing  Swords,  brings  in  Gabriel." 
—  "  Henry  III,"  Act  2,  Sc.  1. 

1  For  example,  '•  Aureng-Zebe,"  Act  4,  Nourmahal's  woo- 
ing of  the  hero. 

M 


16S  THE  ENGLISH  HEROIC  PLAY 

and  proverbs,  but  there  is  a  goodly  number 
of  axioms  and  aphorisms.  The  play  itself  was 
supposed  to  be  exalted  above  everyday  life, 
with  no  intent  of  supplying  the  place  of  a 
manual  of  human  conduct.  The  following  are 
instances  of  such  moral  reflections  :  * 

"  He  only  is  above  Envy  and  Fate 
Whose  mind  in  sinking  Fortunes  keeps  its  height."  ' 

"  In  Fears  Men  sin,  I  scorn  to  be  involv'd, 
What  is  it  can  resist  a  soul  resolv'd  ?  "  ' 

"  The  valiant  man  is  his  own  emperor."  * 

"  I  find 
My  timorous  Flesh  strives  to  infect  my  Mind."  ' 

Where  such  reflections  abound  it  is  inevit- 
able that  they  should  sometimes  break  the 
confines  of  a  line  or  couplet,  and  invade  a  scene. 
The  result  may  be  a  discussion,  as  in  the  fol- 
lowing instance,  where  the  relative  claims  of 
expediency,  under  the  name  of  reason,  and  of 
justice  are  in  question : 

^  A  selection  from  Dryden  is  given  by  Holzhausen,  £.  S., 
zvi.  219. 

*  "  Great  Favorite,"  Act  4,  concluding  couplet. 
»  '•  Herod  the  Great,"  Act  1. 

*  "  Siege  of  Rhodes,"  4th  Entry. 
'  "  Herod  the  Great,"  Act  1. 


GENERAL  TRAITS  183 

"  Charoloys.   Have  you  forgot  that  Vow,  Sir,  -which  you 
made 
To  th'  English  King,  when  France  he  did  invade  ? 
That  Vow  is  to  your  Honour  still  a  Debt. 

Burgundy.  A  Statesman  all  but  int'rest  may  forget, 
And  only  ought  in  his  own  Strength  to  trust : 
'Tis  not  a  Statesman's  Virtue  to  be  just. 

Charoloys.   Those  Words  which  lately  you  in  Council 
said. 
Have  on  my  Breast  a  deep  Impression  made. 
You  urg'd  that  Acts  of  Justice  are  alone 
What  can  preserve  or  must  exalt  a  Throne. 
Is  your  own  Counsel  by  yourself  despisd  ? 

Burgundy.  I  then  for  others,  not  myself,  advis'd. 
Reason  should  still  appoint  us  what  to  do. 

Charoloys.  You'll  find  that  Reason  has  Religion  too ; 
Which  is  by  Interchange  of  Justice  shown. 
Doing  to  all  what  to  yourself  is  done. 

Blamount.  You  measure  Reason  with  a  crooked  line. 

Charoloys.  High  Reason  to  Religion  does  incline. 

Burgundy.  I,  Son,  Reason  of  Cloisters,  not  of  State ; 
Pow'r  seldom  is  religious  to  that  Height. 
Religion  too,  not  Reason  is,  but  Faith. 

Charoloys.  I  fear,  Sir,  if  such  dang'rous  Ways  you  chuse, 
Instead  of  ruling  both,  you  both  will  lose."  ^ 

The  admission  of  debate  into  a  scene  some- 
times leads  to  the  didactic. 

"  Why  was  not  Reason,  by  decree  of  Heaven, 
To  Man  for  his  internal  Monarch  given  ? 

1  "Henry  V,"  Act  3. 


164  THE  ENGLISH  HEROIC  PLAT 

Our  Passions  over  us  the  Conquest  get, 
And  as  They  please,  They  cloud  or  govern  it. 
Love,  Honour,  and  Revenge  by  turns  bear  sway, 
And  all  Command  what  they  should  all  obey."  ^ 

Certain  passages,  too,  in  which  there  is  much 
historical  allusion  and  patriotic  eulogy,  may  be 
termed  purposely  instructive^  On  the  whole, 
however,  this  drama  is  neither  preceptive  or 
instructive  in  a  didactic  manner.  Theoretically, 
the  authors  might  claim  that,  as  tragedy  paints 
men  better  than  they  are,  an  attempt  at  in- 
struction by  example  on  their  part  is  implied. 
Practically,  it  is  questionable  whether  they 
thought  much  about  it. 

The  heroic  drama  is  serious ;  it  deals  with 
momentous  events  in  a  supposedly  dignified  and 
lofty  manner,  in  a  tone  rarely  broken.  With 
it  there  is  very  little  admixture  of  the  less 
serious,  because  that  would  have  been  out  of 
accord  with  the  "French  manner."  There  is, 
however,  an  occasional  departure,*  probably 
under  the  influence  of  the  earlier  English  tradi- 

*  "Altemira,"  Act  1.  Importance  is  added  to  this  pas- 
sage by  its  closing  an  act. 

2  "  Henry  III,"  passim. 

""Altemira,"  Act  2.  A  satire  on  woman.  "Fatal 
Jealousie,"  passim.    A  satire  on  witchcraft. 


GENERAL  TRAITS  165 

tion.  But  in  the  main,  it  may  be  stated  with 
tolerable  security  that  wherever  there  is  humor 
it  is  unconscious.  There  is  sufficient  humor  to 
attract  notice.  That  these  plays  were  not  taken 
as  seriously  as  they  were  meant  to  be,  the 
"  Rehearsal  "  ^  abundantly  shows,  and  there  is 
good  reason  to  believe  that  the  way  in  which 
they  were  listened  to  partly  explains  Dryden's 
contempt  for  his  audience,  for  there  is  no  doubt 
that  certain  of  his  scenes  were  received  flip- 
pantly, which  he  regarded  as  worthy  of  respect. 
There  is  many  a  passage  that  at  the  present 
time  appears  ridiculous,  and  many  a  passage 
must  have  appeared  ridiculous  to  contemporary 
auditors.  There  is  no  dearth  of  unconscious 
humor,  though  its  extent  may  be  difficult  to 
determine,  as  in  the  following  situation  where 
a  villain  mistakes  one  woman  for  another  and 
mortally  poisons  her.  On  learning  his  error, 
he  apologizes. 

1  The  "  Rehearsal,"  by  George  Villiers,  Duke  of  Bucking- 
ham, and  others,  1671,  is  the  most  deservedly  famous  satire 
on  the  absurdities  of  Restoration  tragedy.  But  there  was 
a  number  of  burlesques  on  particular  plays ;  and  the  allu- 
sions to  heroic  plays,  mainly  derogatory,  in  prologues  and 
epilogues  and  scattered  profusely  throughout  comedy,  are 
countless.     See  Appendix  C. 


166  THE  ENGLISH  HEROIC  PLAY 

"  But  your  pardon  I  implore ; 
You're  the  first  Princess  I  ere  killed  before. 
Though  murd'ring  I  have  my  profession  made ; 
No  Artist  but  may  fail  once  in  his  Trade. 
A  damn'd  dull,  foolish  —  " 

then  as  he  turns  to  another  character,  — 

«But  Hang'tletitdie; 
'Tis  a  mistake  not  worth  your  memory."  * 

There  is  no  proof,  except  in  certain  infre- 
quent and  specific  cases,  that  the  idea  of  infus- 
ing an  anti-tragedy  element  into  his  work  ever 
came  to  a  writer  of  tragedies.  Many  of  these 
writers  were  ill  suited  for  the  task  they  set 
themselves;  they  were  not  born  poets,  but  poet- 
asters, who  made  tragedies  in  title  and  exter- 
nals, but  the  times  demanded  plays,  and  the 
pattern  of  composition  prescribed  by  fashion 
rendered  imitation  easy  and  counterfeit  plaus- 
ible. The  time  was  ripe  for  the  "  Rehearsal " 
and  its  species. 

I  In  substance  the  heroic  drama  is  a  violent, 
jiistorted,  and  hollow  echo  of  a  dead  ideal ;  in 
its  nature  it  is  not  only  removed  from  everyday 
life  (which  would  perhaps  not  matter),  but  in 
its  own  peculiar  sphere   it  is  not  adequately 

1 «'  Conquest  of  China,"  Act  4,  Sc.  2. 


GENERAL  TRAITS  167 

tangible  and  does  not  make  for  conviction. 
This,  in  itself,  exposes  it  to  derision.  The  op- 
portunity for  parody  is  doubled  when  it  is 
recalled  that  these  rampantly  extravagant  no- 
tions were  clothed  in  ill-chosen  words  and  situ- 
ations, due  either  to  a  lack  of  a  redeeming 
common  sense  in  the  author  or  to  his  ignorance 
of  his  craft  as  rhymer  or  playwright. 

It  is  only  necessary  to  imagine  rhymed  trag- 
edies acted  at  the  present,  and  to  consider  their 
probable  reception,  in  order  to  realize  partially 
the  difference  in  taste  between  an  audience  that 
would  tolerate  this  kind  of  drama  and  our  own, 
and  also  to  realize,  though  still  partially,  the 
gulf  between  these  plays  and  any  audience 
whatsoever  —  how  ineffectually  they  must  have 
made  their  appeal.  Picture  the  spirit  of  the 
melancholy  Dane's  father  disappearing  in  this 
wise: 

"  Fryar.  Stay  Spirit  stay  — 
—  What's  he  who  does  behind  remain? 
Spir.   One  of  the  Princes  of  Lorrain. 
Guise.   Say,  Spirit,  must  he  wear  the  Crown? 
Spirit.   That  unknown  Voice  has  knock't  us  down. 

{The  three  Spirits,  Rebel  and  Murder,  descend."  ^ 

1  "  Henry  m,"  Act  2,  So.  2. 


168  THE  ENGLISH  HEROIC  PLAY 

Not  necessarily  comical,  but  certainly  devoid 
of  the  habitual  dignity  of  its  author  is 

"Now  that  the  Ghosts  are  vanish'd  I'll  appear." 

[^He  makes  a  noise.^ 

The  actor  whose  lot  it  was  to  declaim  this  — 

particularly  the  concluding  couplet  —  is  to  be 

pitied  : 

Enter  a  Soldier 

"  Sold.  Upon  the  Hill  'twixt  this  and  Orleans, 
Sight-hand  the  Road,  I  'spy  some  Horse  advance. 

Capt.  How  many  may  they  be? 

Sold.   Some  three  or  four. 

Capt.   Why  did  you  stir  unless  they  had  been  more  ? 

Sold.   Methought  they  more  and  more  began  t'  appear. 

Capt.  Some  dreadful  Troop  of  Thistles ! 

Sold.   Gad !    I  swear, 
I  saw  'em  move. 

Capt.   Some  Troop  of  hom'd  Beasts, 
Or  Trees  with  waving  Plumes  upon  their  Crests. 
Dost  think  they  were  not  Clouds. 

Sold.   1  know  not  well ; 
I'l  try  once  more  and  then  may  surely  tell."  lExitJ' 

There  is  naught  in  the  context  to  account  for 
the  presence  of  this  line  : 

"  Knock  at  your  breast ;  may  be  you're  not  at  home."  • 

1  '•  Herod  the  Great,"  Act  1. 
«  "  Henry  III,"  Act  2,  Sc.  1. 
» Ibid.,  Act  3,  Sc.  1. 


+1 


GENERAL  TRAITS  169 

If  Mr.  Stephen's  dictum  to  the  effect  that  the 
element  of  humor  in  a  play  proves  the  existence 
of  this  sense  in  the  playwright  be  applied 
inversely,  the  result  in  Dryden's  case  is  dis- 
putable. His  two  chief  editors  differ  on  the 
subject.  It  is  not  surprising,  therefore,  that 
as  his  talent  for  comedy  has  been  valued  low, 
he  should  now  and  again  be  unintentionally 
humorous  in  a  sort  of  writing  where  it  was 
difficult  to  avoid  it  entirely.  In  him,  as  in 
other  heroic  dramatists,  the  ridiculous  may  be 
discerned  chiefly  in  the  ultra-extravagant,  in 
diction,  situation,  and  sentiment.  Sometimes, 
moreover,  incongruity  between  the  language 
and  the  character  argues  an  indifference  to 
comic  possibilities.  Thus  a  wife  who  has  had 
intrigues  with  a  Dutchman  and  an  Englishman, 
parts  from  her  husband,  as  he  is  about  to  be 
led  to  death.     She  observes  : 

"  Farewell,  my  dearest !    I  may  have  many  husbands, 
But  never  one  like  thee."  ^ 

The  Restoration  tragedy  did  not  reflect  con- 
temporary  life,  materially  or  historically.  There 
is   apparently  scarcely  a  single   allusion   to   a 

1  "  Amboyna,"  Act  5,  Sc.  1. 


170  THE  ENGLISH  HEROIC  PLAY 

passing  event.^  With  a  few  political  refer- 
ences, a  few  eulogies  of  the  king,  scoffings  at 
Puritanism,  and  an  occasional  gibe  at  the  ex- 
pense of  the  court  (which  is  not  necessarily  a 
spontaneous  contemporary  feature),  the  list  is 
nearly  exhausted,  so  far  as  material  is  afforded 
by  the  plays  themselves.  There  was  no  at- 
tempt to  invade  the  province  of  the  comedy 
of  the  day,  and  depict  manners.  Incidentally 
Ravenscroft's  opinion, 

"  I  think  the  business  of  our  Nation 
Too  sad  a  Theam  to  pass  for  Recreation,"  ^ 

confirmed  the  practice.  That  tragedy  did  not 
depict  the  life  of  the  time  is  not  in  itself  cen- 
surable; but  disregard  of  all  facts,  without 
offering  adequate  substitutes,  takes  away  the 
sense  of  standing  on  firm  ground,  and  is  not  at 
all  compensated  for  by  the  feeling  of  having 
left  the  earth,  without  at  the  same  time  having 
been  transported  to  a  fairy  world. 

It  is  not  a  fairy  world  ;  but  the  characters  in 

1  It  is,  of  course,  impossible  now  to  determine  precisely 
the  extent  of  such  allusions.  They  were  made  the  most  of 
by  the  audience.  Tepys  says  that  the  "  Great  Favourite  " 
was  intended  to  upbraid  the  king  for  his  mistresses. 

•  ' '  Conspiracy. ' '    Epilogue. 


GENERAL  TRAITS  171 

large  part  are  historical  figures,  and  so  should 
be  accountable  to  human  reason.  Their  gen- 
eral manner  of  expression  is  such  as  might  be 
supposed  to  emanate  from  a  "bad  poet,"  and 
the  situation  which  does  not  satisfy,  the  char- 
acter which  does  not  convince,  the  sentiment 
which  does  not  please  —  all,  beyond  question, 
came  from  the  same  source.  In  short,  the 
whole  is  artificial. 

And  it  must  be  acknowledged  that,  as  a 
whole,  the  heroic  drama  is  monotonous.  Mo- 
notony is  one  of  the  many  consequences  of 
lack  of  originality,  none  more  conspicuous. 
The  endeavor  on  the  part  of  several  men, 
similarly  educated,  to  attain  the  same  end  in 
the  same  manner,  makes  repetition  to  a  monoto- 
nous extent  inevitable.  The  oft-told  tale,  told 
in  the  selfsame  way,  becomes  a  drone.  Lovel 
is  frequently  defined  with  striking  similarity,' 
manifestations  of  friendship  are  duplicated, 
the  same  characters  and  situations  are  repro- 
duced again  and  again.  Because  of  this  mo- 
notony, the  appetite  becomes  dulled,  and  the 
clearness  of  the  traits  fades.  For  this  reason, 
too,  bombast  eventually  fails  to  attract  atten- 
tion.     Some  plays  are  without  this  element, 


ITS  THE  ENGLISH  HEROIC  PLAY 

but  in  the  most  of  them  it  is  a  prominent  and, 
at  first,  a  striking  feature.  But  the  frequency 
of  its  recurrence  takes  away  its  force. 

"  Let  'em  redouble  speed  and  courage  too, 
Here  like  Alcides  on  the  Phrygian  sand, 
Rage  in  his  eyes  and  thunder  in  his  hand, 
I  will  attend  what  Fate  so  ill  design'd, 
And  death  with  Fame  and  matchless  Honour  find. 
My  Courage  shall  surpass  dull  Natures  bounds, 
I'l  fright  the  insulting  Cowards  with  my  wounds, 
And  when  at  last  my  life's  a  Prey  to  Fate, 
Upon  their  mangled  heaps  I'l  die  in  State."  * 

Herod  must  have  had  a  marvellous  gaze. 

"Were  your  House  reviv'd,  did  they  all  reign. 
My  Looks  would  fright  them  into  Ghosts  again."  ' 

The  sun  and  the  "  king  "  of  China  share  the 
universe  between  them : 

"  The  Mighty  will  from  whence  all  pow'r  does  grow, 
.  .  .  plac'd  the  Sun  above,  and  me  below."  • 

Such  boasts  attract  notice  at  first,  but  they 
are  mild  in  comparison  with  numberless  others. 
Artificiality,  monotony,  and  bombast  are  flaws 
in  art ;  but  bombast  gets  to  be  thought  of  as  a 

1  "  Siege  of  Memphis,"  Act  1,  So.  2. 
«  •'  Herod  the  Great,"  Act  2. 
•  "  Conquest  of  Chma,"  Act  2. 


GENERAL  TRAirS  173 

spiritual  matter,  because  it  is  the  customary 
medium  for  the  expression  of  sacrilege.  A 
t-pretty  sure  means  of  determining  the  type  of 
the  heroic  character  is  by  finding  out  whether 
or  not  the  individual  claims  for  himself  equality 
with,  or  even  superiority  over,  the  gods.  If  the 
result  is  negative,  he  lacks  a  generally  impor- 
tant, if  not  an  essential,  feature.  As  the  dis- 
respect is  to  the  gods  rather  than  to  the 
Christian  God,  the  shock  to  the  modern  is 
not  so  great ;  besides  the  absurd  extravagance 
of  the  conception  makes  serious  consideration 
of  it  nearly  impossible.  Yet,  if  seriousness  be 
maintained,  blasphemy  is  frequent  as  well  as 
flagrant. 

"  I'm  in  Fate's  place,  and  dictate  her  decrees."  ^ 

*'  Whilst  I  have  pow'r,  declare  the  gods,  for  me  they  must, 
Or  I  will  fling  their  Temples  in  the  Dust, 
O'rethrow  their  altars,  all  their  Flammins  flay, 
And  take  from  them,  their  Deities  away. 
Tell  me  no  more  of  Gods,  my  pow'er  shall  be 
My  greatest,  and  my  only  Deitie."  ^ 

1  "  Aureng-Zebe,"  Act  4,  Sc.  1.  For  further  selections 
from  Dryden  on  this  theme,  see  Holzhausen,  E.  S.,  xv.  40  ff. 
Observe  Dryden  often  violates  his  own  dictate, 

"Yet  noisy  bombast  carefully  ^void." 

2  "  Siege  of  Babylon,"  Act  3. 


m  THE  ENGLISH  HEROIC  PLAY 

"  But  what  is  death,  or  whither  do  I  go  ? 
To  heaven,  or  some  dark  Region  plac't  below, 
If  any  State  or  government  serene. 
Be  where  I  am  should  hell  encrease  its  si;)leen. 
And  strive  to  oppose,  yet  I  would  be  their  Queen."  ^ 

The  Empress  of  Morocco  has  no  fear  of  death 
and  would  seek  to  avoid  future  punislunent 
through  an  ingenious  stratagem. 

i"  Hell  I    No,  of  that  I  scorn  to  be  afraid ; 
I'll  send  such  throngs  to  the  Infernal  Shade, 
Betray,  and  Kill,  and  Damn  to  that  Degree, 
I'll  crowd  up  Hell,  till  there's  no  Room  for  Me."  * 

Restoration  drama,  as  a  whole,  was  accused  of 
being  atheistic.    Crowne  thus  pleads  guilty  : 

"  I  have,  in  my  Jerusalems,  made  too  beauti- 
ful an  image  of  an  atheist ;  and  atheism  appears 
too  reasonable  and  lovely.  I  am  sorry  there 
should  be  anything  under  my  hand  in  defence 
of  such  a  false,  pernicious  and  detestable  ojiin- 
ion.  Some  endeavour  to  clear  me  of  the 
guilt,  and  would  persuade  the  world  they  were 
written  by  a  noble  and  excellent  wit,  the  late 

E.    of   R .     But    they   were   printed   long 

before  my  Lord  died  his  Lordship  in  his  poem 
call'd  the  Sessions  of  Poets  charges  me  not  with 
theft,  but  my  scenes  with  dulness  and  want  of 
wit,  and  poetry,  whicli  lie  wou'd  not  have  done 

1  "  Siege  of  Memphis,"  Act  6,  So.  6. 

2  "  Empress  of  Morocco,"  Act  3,  Sc.  1. 


GENERAL  TRAITS  175 

if  they  had  been  his  own.  But  since  there  is 
too  mucli  atheism  in  those  plays  I  am  content 
they  shou'd  be  thought  not  mine  or  not  good. 
I  had  rather  have  no  wit,  no  being,  than  em- 
ploy any  part  of  it  against  him  that  gave  it."^ 

The  cliarge  of  atheism,  however,  against  the 
heroic  drama,  need  not  be  taken  into  consid- 
eration. It  is  enough  that  the  temptation  to 
out- Herod  Herod  in  bombastic  rant  is  yielded 
to,  is  pursued  to  the  utmost  extreme,  cannot 
reach  beyond  Deity,  and  so  stops  there.  Besides, 
Jeremy  Collier  attacked  the  stage  of  this  era  — 
he  was  well  equipped  and  plain-speaking  — 
attacked  it  in  all  its  phases  of  profanity,  blas- 
phemy, and  atheism.  He  was  so  scrupulous  as 
to  object  to  "  Gad  "  as  an  oath.  Yet  nowhere 
(though  from  his  own  point  of  view  he  might 
have  done  so  justly)  did  he  cite  for  condemna- 
tion or  even  mention  an  heroic  play ,2  and  what 
he  saw  fit  to  let  alone  there  is  no  occasion  now 
to  disturb. 

The  heroic  drama  is  very  superficial  as  re- 
gards intellectual  or  emotional  power.     There 

1  «'  Caligiila."    To  the  Reader. 

2  Jeremy  Collier,  "  Short  View,'.'  etc.  He  takes  exception 
to  a  sentiment  of  Dryden  in  the  dedication  to  "Aureng- 
Zebe."     Chapter  II,  pp.  166-167,  3d  edition.     1698. 


17«  THE  ENGLISH  HEROIC  PLAY 

is  not  overmuch  pliilosophy  of  life,  and  still 
less  that  is  not  commonplace.  The  necessity 
of  love,  of  faith,  and  of  courageous  singleness 
of  purpose  in  life  is  recognized. 

**  A  shaken  faith's  the  storme  of  tottering  soules."  ^ 

"  Faith  is  a  force  from  which  there's  no  defence."  ' 

One  should  not  fear. 

"  No,  there  is  a  necessity  in  fate, 
Why  still  the  brave  bold  man  is  fortunate ; 
He  keeps  his  object  ever  full  in  sight. 
And  that  assurance  holds  him  fierce  and  right. 
True,  'tis  a  narrow  path  that  leads  to  bliss. 
But  right  before  there  is  no  precipice  : 
Fear  makes  men  look  aside,  and  then  their  footing 
miss." ' 

"  The  minds  of  heroes  their  own  measures  are, 
They  stand  exempted  from  the  rules  of  war. 
One  loose,  one  sally  of  the  hero's  soul, 
Does  all  the  military  art  control ; 
While  timorous  wit  goes  round,  or  fords  the  shore, 
He  shoots  the  gulf,  and  is  already  o'er, 
And  when  the  enthusiastic  fit  is  spent. 
Looks  back  amazed  at  what  he  underwent."  ♦ 

"  Had  life  no  love,  none  would  for  business  live ; 
Yet  still  from  love  the  largest  part  we  give ; 

1  "  Great  Favourite,"  Act  4,  Sc.  1. 

»  "Tyrannic  Love,"  Act  4,  Sc,  1. 

»  "  Conquest  of  Granada,"  Pt.  1,  Act  4,  Sc.  2. 

*/6id.,Pt  2,  Act  4,  Sc.  2. 


GENERAL  TRAITS  177 

And  must  be  forced,  in  empire's  weary  toil, 
To  live  long  wretched,  to  be  pleased  a  while."  ^ 

Here  there  is  no  enthusiasm  over  love  or  life, 
the  melancholy  note  has  set  in  ;  and  wherever 
the  author  —  whoever  he  be  —  rests  for  a 
moment,  doubtless  utterly  exhausted,  from 
habitual  rampaucy  of  thought,  the  reflection  is 
generally  sad.  At  least,  whether  it  be  mod- 
erately or  extravagantly  expressed,  meditation 
on  life  and  its  value  is  usually  pessimistic. 

"  Life's  a  disease ; "  ^ 

"  Life  was  my  curse,  and  given  me  sure  in  spight ; "  ' 

and  likewise  life  is  a  cheat ; 

"  By  this  we  see  that  all  the  World's  a  cheat, 
Where  truths  and  falsehoods  lye  so  intermixt 
And  are  so  like  each  other  that  'tis  hard 
To  find  the  difference."* 

There  is  a  more  famous  passage  in  the  same 

vein. 

"  When  I  consider  life,  'tis  all  a  cheat ; 
Yet,  fooled  with  hope,  men  favour  the  deceit ; 
Trust  on,  and  think  to-morrow  will  repay : 

1  Ibid.,  Pt.  1,  Act  5,  Sc.  2. 

2  "Fatal  Jealousie,"  Act  2. 

8  "•  Don  Carlos,"  Act  5,  Sc.  1. 
♦  "Fatal  Jealousie,"  Act  2. 


178  THE  ENGLISH  HEROIC  PLAY 

To-morrow's  falser  than  the  former  day ; 
Lies  worse,  and,  while  it  says,  we  shall  be  blest 
With  some  new  joys,  cuts  off  what  we  possest. 
Strange  cozenage  I     None  would  live  past  years  ag^in, 
Yet  all  hope  pleasure  in  what  yet  remain ; 
And,  from  the  dregs  of  life,  think  to  receive, 
What  the  first  sprightly  running  could  not  give. 
I'm  tired  with  waiting  for  this  chemic  gold, 
Which  fools  us  yomig,  and  beggars  us  when  old."  ^ 

The  rejoinder  is  hopeful,  but  the  note  is  rare 
and  perhaps  not  entirely  convincing. 

"  'Tis  not  for  nothing  that  we  life  pursue ; 
It  pays  our  hopes  with  something  still  that's  new : 
Each  day's  a  mistress,  unenjoyed  before ; 
Like  travellers,  we're  pleased  with  seeing  more. 
Did  you  but  know  what  joys  your  way  attend, 
You  would  not  hurry  to  your  journey's  end."  ' 

An  old  man  speaks  thus : 

"  Believe  me,  son,  and  needless  trouble  spare; 
'Tis  a  base  world,  and  is  not  worth  our  care : 
The  vulgar,  a  scarce  animated  clod. 
Ne'er  pleased  with  aught  above  them,  prince  or  God. 
Were  I  a  god,  the  drunken  globe  should  roll, 
The  little  emmets  with  the  human  soul 
Care  for  themselves,  while  at  my  ease  I  sat. 
And  second  causes  did  the  work  of  fate ; 
Or,  if  I  would  take  care,  that  care  should  be 
For  wit  that  scorned  the  world,  and  lived  like  me."* 

1  "  Aureng-Zebe,"  Act  4,  Sc.  1. 
« Ibid.  » Ibid. 


GENERAL  TRAITS  179 

All  is  vanity. 

"  'Tis  hard  to  know  whose  brains  have  wider  flaws, 
They  who  sit  rattling  chains,  and  plaiting  straws. 
Or  they  who  toil  only  for  vain  renown, 
To  wear  in  history  a  paper  crown. 
Whilst  Caesar  now  for  a  design  so  vain 
Takes  poets  and  historians  in  his  train. 
How  like  a  lunatic  this  Prince  appears, 
Pleas'd  because  bells  jingling  at  his  ears  I"* 

Old  age  is  uninviting. 

"  The  greatest  object  pity  hath,  is  Age 
When  it  returns  to  childishness  again 

If        *        *        0        *        *        * 
And  though  we  see  this  true,  yet  we  would  all 
Prolong  our  time  to  that  decrepid  state."  ^ 

Since  the  world  is  a  fraud,  let  us  adapt  our- 
selves to  its  ways,  and  believe  not  in  immortal 
love. 

"  Think  you  then  Madam,  that  no  sympathy 
Of  noble  souls  lasts  to  eternity  ? 

No,  there  are  no  such  souls  as  you  would  have. 
What  ever  you  have  read  or  heard  that's  brave. 
Our  Conquerour,  whose  force  equals  his  wiU, 
A  Hero  is,  'cause  he  can  rob  and  kill. 
And  well  bred  Cheats,  do  call  it  complement, 
When  flattering  they  speak  what  is  not  meant ; 

1  "  Caligula,"  Act  3. 

2  ''Fatal  Jealousie,"  Act  5. 


180  THE  ENGLISH   HEROIC  PLAT 

Cheating  out-witting  is,  though  some  tame  fools 
Believe  the  virtue  taught  us  in  our  Schools."  * 

Of  course  marriage  but  increases  misery. 

"  There's  not  that  happiness 
In  Marriage  Beds,  as  single  People  guess, 
No,  no,  so  far  from  that,  that  thousands  be 
Flatter'd  by  hopes  to  endless  misery. 
And  where  there's  two  obtain  their  heart's  desire, 
Ten  thousand  miss  it,  and  in  grief  expire. 
Were  these  Positions  ti-ue,  there's  no  man,  sure, 
If  Widdowed  once,  could  other  Wives  endure. 
And  yet  we  see  the  first  depriv'd  of  Life, 
There's  few  that  seek  not  for  a  second  Wife. 

'Tis  true,  though  strange,  but  yet  our  minds  are  such, 

As  always  find  too  little,  or  too  much. 

Desire's  a  Monster,  whose  extended  Maw 

Is  never  fill'd  tho'  it  doth  all  things  draw ; 

For  we  with  envious  Eyes  do  others  see. 

Who  want  our  ills,  and  think  they  happy  be, 

Till  we  possessing  what  we  wish'd  before, 

Find  our  ills  doubl'd,  and  so  wish  for  more."  ' 

The  attitude  toward  life  is,  then,  pessimistic, 
its  value  is  dubious;  and  the  attitude  toward 
things  unseen  is  sceptical.  This  approaches  the 
paradoxical,  for  there  is  a  great  deal  of  the  vis- 
ible appearance  of  the  supernatural  on  the  stage 

1  "  Amazon  Queen,"  Act  1,  Sc.  1. 
*  "Fatal  Jealousie,"  Act  1. 


GENERAL  TRAITS  181 

—  ghosts,  spirits,  goblins,  and  the  like  —  and  in 
many  cases  there  is  no  evidence  to  show  that 
the  scene  was  not  meant  to  be  serious,  nor  that 
it  was  interpreted  otherwise.  It  would  prob- 
ably be  difficult,  in  other  words,  to  prove  that 
such  scenes  were  intended  to  be  ridiculous  ;  the 
manner  is  too  dignified  to  warrant  such  an 
assumption.  Furthermore,  there  are  minutely 
detailed  descriptions  of  charms,  of  means  of 
appeal  to  the  unearthly.  Yet,  the  intellectual 
aspect,  as  expressed  in  verbal  reflection  on  what 
is  beyond  nature,  is  sceptical. 

"  The  Dead  ne'er  to  the  Living  durst  appear, 
Ghosts  are  but  shadows  painted  by  our  fear."  ^ 

Richard  III  speaks : 

"  Hah !  Ghosts  ?  there  are  no  ghosts,  nor  ever  were, 
But  in  the  Tales  of  Priests,  or  Womens  Tear. 
If  you  be  Ghosts,  to  your  dark  Mansions  go ; 
If  you  be  Ghosts,  'twas  I  that  made  you  so. 
I  of  your  Substance  these  pale  Nothings  made ;  ^ 
How  dare  you  then  your  Conquerour  invade  ? 
Go  home,  dark  Vagabonds  !  must  I  not  have 
Rest  in  my  Bed,  nor  you  Rest  in  your  grave  ? 
What  Magick  can  Night- Vapours  thus  condense 
To  Forms,  which  cheat,  and  terrifie  the  Sense  ?  " 

1  «« Herod  the  Great,"  Act  2. 
*  The  pimctuation  is  indistinct. 


182  THE  ENGLISH  HEROIC  PLAY 

After  thus  addressing  the  apparition  before 
him  as  if  it  did  not  exist,  his  mental  state 
changes,  and  the  address  is  continued,  taking 
for  granted  the  actuality  of  the  vision. 

"  Saint  Henry  !  get  thee  hence  to  thy  cold  Bed, 
So  tame,  alive?  so  fierce,  now  thou  art  Dead? 
A  holy  King  did  not  the  Throne  become, 
Thy  Godliness  prepar'd  thee  for  a  Tomb. 
I  did  from  Tetokshery  dispatch  thy  Heir, 
In  the  next  World  to  be  thy  Harbinger; 
Would  you  have  staid  behind,  when  he  was  gone? 
A  Father  ought  not  to  outlive  his  Son. 
Hah!  Brother?  Wife?  stand  off  I  no  tyes  of  Blood 
Are  by  aspiring  monarclis  understood ; 
They  to  secure  ray  Crown  did  Life  resign ; 
She  in  a  Cup,  he  in  a  Butt  of  Wine." 

The  scene  and  the  act  close  in  this  way  : 

"  Peace,  Conscience !  I  long  since  have  conquer'd  thee ; 
Yet  still  thou  art  disposed  to  Mutinie 
Oft  have  I  par'd  thy  Branches ;  but  thy  Root 
Does  lye  so  deep,  I  cannot  tear  it  out. 
Of  Sovereign  Power  it  is  the  only  Curse, 
To  be  Successful,  and  then  feel  Remorse."  * 

The  sceptical  view  is  not  confined  to  verbal 
expression;  there  are  scenes  also  in  which 
the  supernatural  is  scoffed  at.  In  the  follow- 
ing, Statira  mistakes  a  woman  for  a  goddess, 

1  '♦  English  Princess,"  Act  4,  Sc.  9. 


GENERAL  TRAITS  183 

and  confides  the  vision  to  her  lover,  Alexander, 
who  takes  advantage  of  her  credulity. 

"  Enter  the  Amazon  Queen  alone  from  Hunting,  dis- 
gfuised  with  a  Head-piece,  who  is  mistaken  for  Diana. 
Statira  vail'd,  prays  to  the  supposed  Diana."  ^ 

"  Stat.   Diana  lately  did  to  me  appear, 
And  bid  me  love  the  man  I  held  most  dear, 
And  that  I  should  not  much  prolong  his  pain  ; 
But  left  the  rest  till  we  two  met  again. 
So  that  I  cannot  be  for  marriage  free, 
Till  the  bright  goddess  next  appears  to  me. 

A  lex.  You  are  sure  wrought  on  by  confederates, 
For  we  have  but  few  parleys  with  the  Fates ; 
But  when  the  deities  do  ought  reveal, 
T'is  to  their  Priests,  what  they  from  us  conceal; 
And  you  the  goddess  will  behold  no  more. 
Which  fills  me  with  despair  more  than  before. 

Stat.   Sir,  there  were  none  who  knew  of  my  design 
To  pray  to  her  when  she  on  me  did  shine ; 
There  was  my  woman,  who  me  waits  upon. 
Who  saw  and  knew  'twas  no  delusion. 

Alex.  But  in  what  dress,  did  she  to  you  appear? 

Stat.   A  Head-piece  on,  and  in  her  hand  a  Spear. 
As  fame  does  tell  us,  Dian  oft  was  wont 
So  to  be  clad  when  she  went  forth  to  hunt. 

Alex.  'Tis  a  good  hint,  an  Oracle  to  fain    ^Aside. 
From  Ephesus,  sought  and  return 'd  again."  ^ 

1  "Amazon  Queen,"  Act  2,  So.  3. 
«  Ihid.y  Act  4,  Sc.  2. 


184  THE  ENGLISH   HEROIC  PLAY 

Alexander  therefore  has  a  make-believe  oracle 
presented  to  her,  which  she  thinks  genuine,  and 
which  she  joyfully  obeys  : 

"  'Twas  honour  and  not  I  bred  my  delay, 
Goddess  thou  know'st  how  gladly  I  obey."  * 

There  is  still  another  play  which  is  in  effect 
a  satire  on  witchcraft,  or,  more  correctly,  in- 
cludes the  story  of  a  witch.  Its  authorship  is 
doubtful,  but  the  date,  1673,  indicates  that 
the  play  was  written  when  witchcraft  was  a 
much  discussed  question,  and  the  mere  im- 
portance of  the  subject  corroborates  this  in- 
dication. This  suggests  that  it  was  in  a 
manner  more  closely  linked  to  its  age  than 
others  of  its  kind.  There  were  some  famous 
accusations  then  for  witchcraft,  particularly 
one  in  France  only  the  year  previous.^  Glan- 
vil's  book  came  out  in  1681,  and  1682  has  been 
assigned  as  the  last  date  when  witches  were 
hanged  in  England.^  Considering  the  time, 
therefore,  the  modernity  of  the  rationalism  of 
the  following  speech  is  noticeable.    In  the  same 

1  "Amazon  Queen,"  Act  6,  Sc.  2. 

'  Francis  Hutchinson,  "  Historical  Essay  concerning 
Witchcraft,"  1720,  p.  65.  »/6jd.,  p.  67. 


GENERAL  TRAITS  186 

play  there  is  a  scene  in  which  the  methods  of 
witchcraft  are  exposed  and  ridiculed.  In  con- 
nection with  opinions  on  the  supernatural  such 
as  these,  as  well  as  on  pessimism  and  scepticism 
in  general,  it  should  always  be  borne  in  mind 
that  the  audience  as  well  as  the  playwright 
was  of  the  court,  which  was  a  very  different 
matter  from  being  of  the  people.  So,  however 
prevalent  in  court  circles,  among  comparatively 
educated  men,  such  ideas  may  have  been,  they 
could  not  have  been  widely  spread.  The 
attempt  to  seek  in  this  body  of  plays  popular 
as  opposed  to  courtly,  expression  of  life  and 
ideals,  is  discouraging. 

"  I've  no  such  art 
As  People  think,  to  call  up  Spirits  to  me ; 
Nor  know  I  anything  but  what  is  told  me. 

These  things  you  speak  of,  people  think  I  do. 

And  so  I'de  have  'em,  for  'tis  the  only  way  I  have  to  live ; 

The  Vulgar  People  love  to  be  deluded ; 

And  things  the  most  unlikely  they  most  dote  on ; 

A  strange  Disease  in  Cattle,  Hogs  or  Pigs, 

Or  any  accident  in  Cheese  or  Butter ; 

Though't  be  but  natural,  or  a  Slut's  fault, 

Must  straight  be  witchcraft !     Oh,  the  Witch  was  here ! 

The  Ears  or  Tail  is  burn'd,  the  Churn  is  burn'd ; 

And  this  to  hurt  the  Witch,  when  all  the  while 


166  THE  ENGLISH  HEROIC  PLAY 

They  *re  likest  Witches  that  believe  such  Cures ; 

though  I  can  raise  no  Devils, 
Yet  I  confederate  with  Rogues  and  Taylors, 
Things  that  can  shape  themselves  like  Elves, 

And  Goblins 

And  often  do  like  Spirits  haunt  great  Houses, 
Most  times  to  steal,  but  many  times  for  mirth."  ^ 

Passages  on  death  and  immortality,  as  a  final 
phase  of  doubt,  are  not  as  a  rule  noteworthy. 
It  is  the  uncertainty  of  the  nature  of  the  un- 
discovered country  that  makes  death  fearful. 
It  is  difficult  to  banish  Hamlet's  soliloquy  from 
the  mind,  and  some  passages  indicate  that  Res- 
toration dramatists  did  not  do  so. 

"  Could  vre  live  always,  life  were  worth  our  cost ; 
But  now  we  keep  with  care  what  must  be  lost. 
Here  we  stand  shivering  on  the  bank,  and  cry, 
"WTien  we  should  plunge  into  eternity. 

One  moment  ends  our  pain ; 

And  yet  the  shock  of  death  we  dare  not  stand, 

By  thought  scarce  measured,  and  too  swift  for  sand ; 

'Tis  but  because  the  living  death  ne'er  knew, 

They  fear  to  prove  it  as  a  thing  that's  new."  ' 

"  Distrust  and  darkness  of  a  future  state, 
Make  poor  mankind  so  fearful  of  their  fate. 

1  '« Fat^  Jealousie,"  Act  2. 

*  "Tyrannic  Love,"  Act  5,  So.  1. 


GENERAL  TRAITS  187 

Death,  in  itself,  is  nothing ;  but  we  fear 

To  be  we  know  not  what,  we  know  not  where."  ^ 

"  What  is  the  thing,  call'd  Death,  we  mortals  shun  ? 
Is't  some  real,  or  is't  a  fancy  only  ? 
Like  that  imaginary  point  in  Mathematics ; 
Not  to  be  found  only  in  definition. 
It  is  no  more ;  Death,  like  your  Children's  Bug- 
bears 
Is  fear'd  by  all,  yet  has  no  other  Being 
Than  what  weak  fancy  gives  it ;  'tis  a  line, 
But  yet  imaginary,  drawn  betwixt 
Time  and  that  dreadful  thing  Eternity  ; 
I,  that's  the  thing,  'tis  fear'd;  for  now  I  find  it 
Eternity  which  puzzles  aU  the  World, 
To  name  the  Inhabitants  that  People  it ; 
Eternity,  whose  undiscovered  Countrey 
We  Fools  divide,  before  we  come  to  see  it ; 
Making  one  part  contain  all  happiness, 
The  other  misery,  then  unseen  fight  for  't. 
Losing  our  certains  for  uncertainties ; 
All  Sects  pretending  to  a  Right  of  choyce ; 
Yet  none  go  willingly  to  take  their  part. 
For  they  all  doubt  what  they  pretend  to  know, 
And  fear  to  mount,  lest  they  should  fall  below."  ^ 

Although  the  heroic  play  is  mainly  non- 
reflective,  dealing  with  externals,  there  is  now 
and  then  a  deeper  note  than  usual,  such  as  this 
on  truth  : 

1  "  Aureng-Zebe,"  Act  4,  So.  1. 
a  "  Fatal  Jealousie,"  Act  3. 


188  THE  ENGLISH  HEROIC  PLAY 

**  So  in  Terrestrial  things  there  is  not  one 
But  takes  its  Form  and  Nature  from  our  fancy ; 
Not  its  own  being,  and  is  what  we  do  think  it." 

Truth  is  not  as  it  seems  to  men. 

"  No,  not  at  all,  as  truth  appears  to  us ; 
For  oftentimes 

That  is  a  truth  to  me  that's  false  to  you, 
So  'twould  not  be  if  it  was  truly  true."  * 

Far   rarer  is  the  note   that  the   real  life   is 
within. 

"  I'm  Pris'ner  still,  to  my  own  thoughts  enslav'd. 
There's  no  confinement  like  that  of  the  mind ; 
All  other  Bondage  may  releasements  find."  * 

The  heroic  play  is  a  strange  mixture  of  a 
rigid  adhesion  to  law  and  of  utter  disregard  for 
it.  In  the  main,  law  is  observed  in  the  various 
manifestations  of  external  form,  such  as  in  ver- 
sification and  in  plot.  The  purest  examples  of 
the  heroic  play  are  written  entirely  in  couplets. 
Lowell  pointed  out  that  the  heroic  couplet  is 
splendidly  adapted  for  compositions  of  a  mock- 
heroic  nature,  and  that  Pope's  "  Rape  of  the 
Lock  "  owes  its  perfection  in  part  to  his  choice 
of  this  kind  of  verse.     It  is  clear  that  a  form 

1  •'  Fatal  Jealousie,"  Act  2. 
a  "  Henry  HI,"  Act  2,  Sc.  L 


GENERAL  TRAITS  189 

which  lends  itself  so  readily  to  mock-heroic 
purposes  must  be  used,  when  applied  to  the 
heroic,  with  great  discretion.  But  it  was  used 
in  the  reign  of  Charles  II  so  indiscriminately 
as  to  obliterate  in  the  minds  of  its  devotees  any 
sense  of  its  appropriateness  to  the  subject-matter. 
Perhaps  it  was  this  indiscriminate  and  excessive 
use  of  it  that  has  strengthened  the  general 
opinion  that  the  form  itself  is  most  ill  suited  for 
English  dramatic  expression.  The  words  of 
M.  Beljame,  because  of  his  nationality  and  of 
his  intimate  acquaintance  with  English  litera- 
ture of  the  seventeenth  century,  should  carry 
great  weight  in  this  connection.     He  says :  — 

"They  adopted  rhyme.  If  this  form  seems 
necessary  for  the  rhythm  of  our  French  verse,  it 
imparts  to  the  English  a  lyrical  tone  which  is 
unbearable  [un  chant  lyrique  insupportable']  in 
a  work  of  great  length,  and  it  is  so  manifestly 
contrary  to  the  dramatic  genius  of  our  neigh- 
bors that  it  was  dethroned  by  Marlowe  in  the 
sixteenth  century,  and  the  Restoration  poets 
could  only  give  it  an  artificial  life  for  a  few 
years,  after  which  it  disappeared  forever  from 
the  stage."  1 

1  Alexandre  Beljame,  "Le  Public  et  les  Hommes  de 
Lettres  en  Angleterre  au  dix-huiti6me  Si^cle."  Deuxi6me 
6dition,  1897,  p.  41. 


190  THE  ENGLISH  HEROIC   PLAY 

'^  Many  of  the  dramatists  themselves  despised 
'  the  vehicle  of  expression  which  they  used ; 
Shadwell,  from  the  first,  Dryden,  eventually, 
and  the  others  silently.  There  may  have  been 
a  few,  like  Rymer,  who  thought  well  of  it ;  but 
it  is  worthy  of  note,  in  considering  the  men  of 
more  than  average  ability  who  wrote  heroic 
plays  and  also  plays  which  in  form  were  not 
heroic,  that  it  was  in  the  latter  kind  that  their 
efforts  attained  the  greatest  excellence.  This 
is  true  of  Otway,  Crowne,  Lee,  and  Dryden. 

The  glot,  like  the  versification,  was  made  by 
I  rule.  The  strict  observance,  on  the  whole,  of 
the  three  unities,  is  in  itself  sufficient  evidence 
of  the  wide  application  of  the  fixed  standard. 
The  method  was  not  of  the  kind  that  creative 
genius  imposes  upon  itself,  but  it  was  concerned 
with  technique  in  the  narrow  sense,  and  disre- 
garded the  relation  between  internal  and  exter- 
nal form.  In  the  characterization,  the  combi- 
nation of  features  which  adhere  to  a  prescribed 
code  and  of  others  which  disregard  it,  is  notice- 
able. In  so  far  as  the  dramatis  personce  are 
affected  by  the  exigencies  of  the  regularity  of 
the  plot,  they  show  they  are  made  on  a  set 
plan;  but  as  the  mouth-pieces  of  certain  senti- 


GENERAL  TRAITS  191 

ments  which  defy  law  and  order,  they  reflect 
license. 

It  is  in  the  sentiment  of  the  heroic  play  that 
this  license  is  most  conspicuous.  Here  there  is 
a  most  curious  mixture  of  shadows  of  old  ideals, 
and  of  old  ideals  perverted.  There  are  some 
phases  of  heroic  sentiment  that  undeniably, 
though  faintly,  echo  and  form  a  part  of  a  lit- 
erary tradition  that  the  Troubadours  began. 
There  are  other  phases  which  are  the  result  of 
the  distortion  of  chivalric  ideals.  The  note  of 
patriotism  is  the  most  unquestionable  and 
prominent  native  element  in  heroic  sentiment. 
Not  to  be  compared,  perhaps,  with  the  same 
note  in  Elizabethan  drama,  or  even  in  the  lyric 
contemporary  with  itself,  this  element  is  still 
respectable  and  genuine.  It  should  be  remem- 
bered, however,  as  a  qualification,  that  patriotism 
never  embraced  the  humble,  never  considered 
them  individually  but  collectively,  and  then, 
even  more  than  in  Shakespeare's  case,  to  abuse 
them.  In  the  drawing  of  examples  of  friend- 
ship, the  heroic  drama  keeps  closest  to  the 
literary  ideals  of  all  ages  ;  to  the  traditions  of 
both  classic  and  romantic  poetry,  and  the  great 
spirits  from  Homer  to  the  author  of  Roland,  to 


188  THE  ENGLISH  HEROIC  PLAY 

Tasso,  Ariosto,  and  the  more  modern  poets. 
They  have  all  exalted  friendship ;  so  it  is  in  the 
heroic  play.  Virtue  is  often  sneered  at,  reason 
and  honor  are  brushed  contemptuously  aside ; 
friendship  alone  has  its  place  upon  a  high  plane, 
second  only  in  elevation  to  that  upon  which 
love  is  enthroned. 

The  contempt  for  honor  was  a  conscious 
jbreaking  away  from  the  contemporary  French 
Istandard  and  most  clearly  illustrates  the  inver- 
sion and  subversion  of  a  literary  tradition. 
Heroic  love  is  not  a  high  and  ennobling  pas- 
sion, but  one  which  has  this  great  and  distinc- 
tive peculiarity  that  it  sanctions  a  violation  of 
all  moral  laws  wherever  they  are  opposed  to  its 
free  sweep  and  range,  although,  when  not  con- 
flicting with  love,  they  are  recognized  as  laws 
to  which  man  owes  allegiance,  and  ideals  of 
conduct  toward  which  he  should  work.  The 
doctrine  that  love  justifies  wrong-doing  is  in- 
compatible with  poetic  justice,  which,  conse- 
quently, is  not  always  regarded.  Yet  love  in 
this  drama  is  still  dignified  and  serious,  with 
the  physical  element  cast  in  the  background, 
and  constancy  extolled. 

The  native  element    in  the  heroic  play  is 


GENERAL  TRAITS  198 

slight,  for  the  love  which  is  the  most  important 
feature  of  heroic  sentiment  and  the  three  unities 
which  determined  the  external  form  are  foreign 
to  England.  The  only  claim  to  originality  that 
plays  with  these  predominating  characteristics 
can  have  is  based  on  the  general  truth  that 
the  importation  of  anything,  from  a  country  in 
which  it  is  in  accord  with  the  national  tempera- 
ment, to  another  land  the  native  genius  of  which 
is  incapable  of  assimilating  it,  always  results 
in  something  different  from  the  original.  In 
verse-form,  plot,  character,  and  sentiment,  the  j 
heroic  play  was  exotic.  It  was  frankly  intro- 1 
duced  as  a  foreign  thing  to  please  a  Frenchified 
court.  Its  failure  was  due  first  to  its  being 
antagonistic  to  the  British  dramatic  genius  and! 
secondly  to  the  fact  that  no  other  type  of  Eng-| 
lish  drama  appealed  to  an  audience  which  was 
so  restricted  in  taste  and  so  small  in  numbers. 

Artificial,  monotonous,  and  bombastic  as  an  art 
production  ;  spiritually  superficial,  pessimistic, 
sceptical  in  its  reflections  on  life,  blasphemous 
and  not  overmuch  observing  of  poetic  justice, 
the  heroic  drama  has  for  its  sphere  the  external 
life  of  pomp  and  pageantry,  essentially  unideal. 
Yet,  with  all  its  faults,  it  was  a  wholesome  anti- 


IM  THE  ENGLISH  HEROIC  PLAY 

dote  to  the  shameless  affronts  to  taste  and 
morals  for  which  contemporary  comedy  is  no- 
torious. It  insisted  upon  decency  and  decorum 
of  language,  it  encouraged  many  of  the  virtues, 
such  as  generosity  and  bravery,  and  consistently 
kept  aloof  from  the  sordid  cares  of  everyday 
life.  To  a  public  tainted  with  meanness  and 
sensuality  it  presented  a  shadow,  at  least,  of 
true  heroic  character. 


APPENDIX  A 

RELATION  BETWEEN  THE  HEROIC  PLAY 
AND  THE  OPERA 

Though  the  "  Siege  of  Rhodes  "  is  usually  termed  the 
first  English  opera,  particularly  by  writers  of  literary 
histories,  the  resemblance  of  opera  form  to  the  masque  is 
plain,  and  has  been  pointed  out.  "  The  idea  of  English 
Opera  was  suggested  neither  by  the  Ballet  nor  the 
Tragedy.  It  was  the  legitimate  offspring  of  the  Masque; 
and  the  Masque,  in  England  at  least,  was  very  far  from 
presenting  the  characteristics  of  a  true  Lyric  Drama.  Its 
music  was,  at  first,  purely  incidental  —  as  much  so  as  that 
introduced  into  the  plays  of  Shakespeare.  .  .  .  The  music 
wi-itten  by  Henry  Lawes  for  Milton's  'Comus'  in  1634 
is  far  less  dramatic  than  Lock's  '  Macbeth ' ;  and  it  was 
really  Purcell  who  first  transformed  the  Masque  into  the 
opera ;  or  rather,  annihilated  the  one,  and  introduced  the 
other  in  its  place."  —  Grove,  "Diet,  of  Music,"  ii;  500. 

The  search  for  an  earlier  example  of  the  opera  than 
the  "  Siege  of  Rhodes  "  rewards  the  curious  only  by  re- 
garding the  letter  rather  than  the  spirit.  "In  1617 
Nicolo  Laniere  set  an  entire  Masque  of  Ben  Jonson's 
to  music,  in  the  Stilo  recitativo,  and  may  therefore  justly 
claim  the  credit  of  having  composed  the  first  English 
Opera,  though  he  was  by  birth  an  Italian.  But  the 
practice  was  not  continued."  —  Grove,  ii ;  507. 

195 


196  THE  ENGLISH  HEROIC  PLAY 

The  transition  from  masque  to  opera  was  not  com- 
plete even  in  Purcell's  day.  Dryden  styled  "  Albion  and 
Albanius,"  produced  1685,  published  1691,  an  opera,  and 
yet,  as  Professor  Saintsbury  says,  "  it  is  not  easy  to  see 
why  Dryden  should  not  have  kept  the  ancient  name  of 
Masque  for  the  piece,  —  a  name  which  thoroughly  fits  it." 
Sir  Walter  Scott  thus  comments:  "Our  author  appears 
to  have  found  it  difficult  to  assign  a  name  for  this  per- 
formance, which  was  at  once  to  address  itself  to  the 
eye,  the  ear,  and  the  understanding.  The  ballad-opera, 
since  invented,  in  which  part  is  sung,  part  acted  and 
spoken,  comes  nearest  to  its  description."  Dryden  also 
called  the  "  State  of  Innocence  "  an  opera,  but  the  appro- 
priateness of  the  title  has  been  denied  on  the  ground 
that  it  "contains  no  lyrical  poetry,  the  music  employed 
in  it  being  entirely  instrumental."  —  Hogarth,  i ;  83. 
In  another  instance  Dryden  seems  to  be  at  a  loss  for  a 
name.  "  It  cannot  properly  be  called  a  play,  because  the 
action  of  it  is  supposed  to  be  conducted  sometimes  by 
supernatural  means,  or  magick ;  nor  an  opera,  because 
the  story  of  it  is  not  sung."  (Preface  to  "  Albion  and 
Albanius.")  Nevertheless  Dryden  has  his  own  notions 
on  the  species  which  in  the  same  preface  he  defended 
against  imaginary  opponents : 

"  An  opera  is  a  poetical  tale,  or  fiction,  represented 
by  vocal  and  instrumental  music,  adorned  with  scenes, 
machines,  and  dancing.  The  supposed  persons  of  this 
musical  drama  are  generally  supernatural,  as  gods  and 
goddesses  and  heroes,  wliich  at  least  are  descended  from 
them,  and  are  in  due  time  to  be  adopted  into  their 
number.  The  subject,  therefore,  being  extended  beyond 
the  limits  of  human  nature,  admits  of  that  .sort  of 
marvellous    and  surprising  conduct,  which   is   rejected 


APPENDIX  A  197 

ia  other  plays.  Human  impossibilities  are  to  be  received 
as  they  are  in  faith;  because,  where  gods  are  intro- 
duced, a  supreme  power  is  to  be  understood,  and  second 
causes  are  out  of  doors.  Yet  propriety  is  to  be  ob- 
served even  here.  The  gods  are  aU  to  manage  their 
own  peculiar  provinces ;  and  what  was  attributed  by  the 
heathens  to  one  power  ought  not  to  be  performed  by  any 
other,  Phoebus  must  foretell,  Mercury  must  charm  with 
his  caduceus,  and  Juno  must  reconcile  the  quarrels  of  the 
marriage-bed.  To  conclude,  they  must  aU  act  according 
to  their  distinct  and  peculiar  characters.  If  the  persons 
represented  were  to  speak  upon  the  stage  it  would  follow 
of  necessity  that  the  expressions  should  be  lofty,  figura- 
tive, and  majestical ;  but  the  nature  of  an  opera  denies 
the  frequent  use  of  these  poetical  ornaments ;  for  vocal 
music,  though  it  often  admits  a  loftiness  of  sound,  yet 
always  exacts  an  harmonious  sweetness ;  or,  to  distinguish 
yet  more  justly,  the  recitative  part  of  the  opera  requires 
a  more  masculine  beauty  of  expression  and  sound;  the 
other,  which,  for  want  of  a  proper  English  word,  I  must 
call  the  songish  part,  must  abound  in  the  softness  and 
variety  of  numbers;  its  principal  intention  being  to 
please  hearing  rather  than  to  gratify  the  understanding 
...  I  said  .  .  .  that  the  persons  represented  in  operas 
are  generally  gods,  goddesses,  and  heroes  descended  from 
them,  who  are  supposed  to  be  their  peculiar  care;  which 
hinders  not,  but  that  meaner  persons  may  sometimes  be 
gracefully  introduced,  especially  if  they  have  relation  to 
those  fii'st  times,  which  poets  call  the  Golden  Age  ;  wherein, 
by  reason  of  their  innocence,  those  happy  mortals  were 
supposed  to  have  had  a  more  familiar  intercourse  with 
superior  beings ;  and,  therefore,  shepherds  might  reason- 
ably be  admitted  as  of  all  callings  the  most  innocent,  the 


198  THE  ENGLISH  HEROIC  PLAY 

most  happy,  and  who,  by  reason  of  the  spare  time  they 
had,  in  their  almost  idle  employment,  had  most  leisure 
to  make  verses,  and  to  be  in  love ;  without  somewhat  of 
which  passion,  no  opera  can  possibly  subsist." 

From  the  foregoing  extract  it  will  be  observed  that 
Dryden's  conception  of  opera  and  of  the  heroic  drama 
(stated  in  his  "  Essay  on  Heroic  Plays  ")  is  the  same  in 
the  following  respects :  the  characters,  if  human,  are  to 
be  heroic  (in  the  original  sense  —  approaching  demi- 
gods) ;  the  improbable  is  justifiable ;  and  as  love  (with 
valor)  is  the  subject  of  the  one,  without  it  no  opera  can 
possibly  subsist.  The  points  of  divergence,  on  the  other 
hand,  are  in  the  diction;  in  the  fact  that  most  of  the 
characters  in  the  former  are  either  supernatural  or  of 
low  birth,  whereas  in  the  heroic  play  they  come  from 
neither  of  these  "social  spheres";  and  in  the  opera's 
"  principal  intention  being  to  please  hearing  rather  than 
to  gratify  understanding." 

It  is  this  last  consideration  —  that  the  opera  did  not 
appeal  to  the  understanding  —  that  is  at  the  root  of 
Dryden's  contempt  for  the  office  of  librettist.  He  chafes 
under  the  yoke  and  swears  he  will  never  be  a  slave  to  the 
composition  again : 

"  The  same  reasons  which  depress  thought  in  an  opera, 
have  a  stronger  effect  upon  the  words,  especially  in  our 
language;  for  there  is  no  maintaining  the  purity  of 
English  in  short  measures,  where  the  rhyme  returns  so 
quick,  and  it  is  so  often  female,  or  double  rhyme,  which 
is  not  natural  to  our  tongue,  because  it  consists  too 
much  of  monosyllables,  and  those  too  most  commonly 
clogged  with  consonants;  for  which  reason  I  am  often 
forced  to  coin  new  words,  revive  some  that  are  anti- 
quated, and  botch  others,  as  if  I  had  not  served  out  my 


APPENDIX  A  199 

time  in  poetry,  but  was  bound  apprentice  to  some  dog- 
gerel rhymer,  who  makes  songs  to  tunes,  and  sings  them 
for  a  livelihood.  It  is  true  I  have  not  been  often  put  to 
this  drudgery;  but  where  I  have,  the  words  will  suffi- 
ciently shew  that  I  was  then  a  slave  to  the  composition, 
which  I  will  never  be  again ;  it  is  my  part  to  invent,  and 
the  musicians  to  humour  that  invention.  I  may  be 
counselled,  and  will  always  follow  my  friend's  advice 
where  I  find  it  reasonable,  but  will  never  part  with  the 
power  of  the  militia."  —  Preface  to  "  Albion  and  Alba- 
nius." 

But  he  spoke  too  soon,  and  did  not  keep  his  resolution. 
And  while  there  appears  good  enough  evidence  of  the 
friendship  between  Dryden  and  Purcell  at  the  time  the 
following  extract  from  the  Dedication  to  "  King  Arthur," 
1691,  was  vrritten,  his  disrespect  for  the  matter  in  hand 
is  none  the  less  evident  because  instead  of  being  openly 
expressed,  as  previously  in  the  preface  to  "  Albion  and 
Albanius,"  it  is  now  subtly  and  deftly  insinuated  with 
that  affected  satisfaction  with  his  age  which  he  so 
frequently  assumed  and  could  so  easily  throw  off. 

"  I  humbly  offer  you  this  trifle,  which,  if  it  succeed 
upon  the  stage,  is  like  to  be  the  chiefest  entertainment 
of  our  ladies  and  gentlemen  this  summer.  When  I  wrote 
it,  seven  years  ago,  I  employed  some  reading  about  it,  to 
inform  myself  out  of  Beda,  Bochartus,  and  other  authors, 
concerning  the  rites  and  customs  of  the  heathen  Saxons; 
as  I  also  used  the  little  skill  I  have  in  poetry  to  adorn  it. 
But  not  to  offend  the  present  times,  nor  a  government 
which  has  hitherto  protected  me,  I  have  been  obliged  so 
much  to  alter  the  first  design,  and  take  away  so  many 
beauties  from  the  writing,  that  it  is  now  no  more  what  it 
was  formerly,  than  the  present  ship  of  the  Royal  Sover- 


200  THE  ENGLISH  HEROIC  TLAY 

eign,  after  so  often  taking  down  and  altering,  is  the 
vessel  it  was  at  the  first  building.  There  is  nothing 
better  than  what  I  intended,  but  the  musiok,  which  has 
since  arrived  to  a  greater  perfection  in  England  than 
ever  formerly;  especially  passing  through  the  artful  hands 
of  Mr.  Purcell,  who  has  composed  it  with  so  great  a 
genius,  that  he  has  nothing  to  fear  but  an  ignorant,  ill- 
judging  audience, 

"  But  the  numbers  of  poetry  and  vocal  musick  are 
sometimes  so  contrary,  that  in  many  places  I  have  been 
obliged  to  cramp  my  verses,  and  make  them  rugged  to 
the  reader,  that  they  may  be  harmonious  to  the  hearer; 
of  which  I  have  no  reason  to  repent  me,  because  these 
sorts  of  entertainments  are  principally  designed  for  the 
ear  and  eye;  and  therefore,  in  reason,  my  art  on  this 
occasion  ought  to  be  subservient  to  his.  And  besides,  I 
flatter  myself  with  an  imagination,  that  a  judicious  audi- 
ence will  easily  distinguish  betwixt  the  songs  wherein  I 
have  complied  with  him,  and  those  in  which  I  have  fol- 
lowed the  rules  of  poetry  in  the  sound  and  cadence  of 
the  words." 

A  successful,  though  highly  unesteemed  contemporary 
also  speaks  contemptuously  and  without  reserve  of  the 
office  of  librettist : 

"  In  a  thing  written  in  five  weeks, . . .  there  must  needs 
be  many  ERROURS,  which  ...  I  have  not  had  leisure  to 
mend,  .  .  .  nor  would  it  indeed  be  worth  the  Pains,  since 
there  are  as  many  Objects  in  the  Play,  and  such  variety 
of  Diversion,  as  will  not  give  the  Audience  leave  to  mind 
the  Writing;  and  I  doubt  not  but  the  Candid  Reader 
will  forgive  the  faults  when  he  considers  that  the  great 
Design  was  to  entertain  the  Town  with  variety  of  Musick, 
curious  Dancing,  splendid  Scenes  and  Machines ;  and  that 


APPENDIX  A  201 

I  do  not,  nor  ever  did  intend  to  value  myself  upon  the 
writing  of  this  Play.  For  I  had  rather  be  Author  of  one 
Scene  of  Comedy,  like  some  of  Ben  Johnson's,  than  of 
all  the  best  plays  of  this  kind  that  have  been,  or  ever 
shall  be  written;  Good  Comedy  requiring  much  more 
Wit  and  Judgment  in  the  Writer,  than  any  rhyming, 
unnatural  Plays  can  do.  This  I  have  so  little  valued 
that  I  have  not  alter'd  six  lines  in  it  since  it  was  first 
written,  which  (except  the  songs  at  the  Marriage  of 
Psyche  in  the  last  Scene)  was  all  done  sixteen  months 
since.  In  all  the  Words  which  are  sung,  I  did  not 
so  much  take  care  of  the  Wit  or  Fancy  of  'em,  as 
the  making  of  'em  proper  for  musick ;  in  which  I 
cannot  but  have  some  little  knowledge,  having  been 
bred  for  many  years  of  my  Youth  to  some  Performance 
in  it. 

"I  chalked  out  the  way  to  the  Composer  (in  all  but 
the  Song  of  Furies  and  Devils  in  the  Fifth  Act),  having 
designed  which  Line  I  would  have  sung  by  One,  which 
by  Two,  which  by  Three,  which  by  four  Voices,  &c.,  and 
what  manner  of  humour  I  would  have  in  all  the  Vocal 
Musick."  —  Shadwell's  "  Psyche,"  Preface. 

The  presence  of  operatic  features  meant  chiefly  a  greater 
attention  than  in  the  drama  proper  to  the  spectacular. 
There  appears  little  doubt  that  it  was  the  opinion  of 
certain  playwrights  and  critics  that  in  proportion  to  the 
importance  of  the  operatic  element  the  significance  and 
dignity  of  the  dramatist's  function  decreased.  Dryden 
and  Shadwell  have  been  cited ;  and  among  contemporary 
theatre-goers  Langbaine  gives  a  curt  account  of  the 
popular  success  of  "  Psyche  "  —  a  work  most  vehemently 
damned  by  the  critics.  "  How  much  this  Opera  takes, 
every  Body  that  is  acquainted  with  the  Theatre  knows ; 


202  THE  ENGLISH  HEROIC  PLAY 

and  with  reason,  since  the  gpreatest  Masters  in  Vocal 
Musick,  Dancing,  and  Painting,  were  concern'd  in  it." 
There  is  also  Wright's  testimony. — "  Historia  Histronica," 
1699: 

"It  is  an  argument  of  the  worth  of  the  plays  and 
actors  of  the  last  age,  and  easily  inferred,  that  they 
were  much  beyond  ours  in  this,  to  consider  that  they 
could  support  themselves  merely  from  their  own  merit, 
the  weight  of  the  matter,  and  goodness  of  the  action, 
without  scenes  and  machines ;  whereas  the  present  plays 
with  all  that  shew  can  hardly  draw  an  audience,  unless 
there  be  the  additional  invitation  of  a  Signior  Fideli,  a 
Monsieur  I'Abbe,  or  some  such  foreign  regale  expressed 
in  the  bottom  of  the  bill." 

These  facts  naturally  lead  to  a  questioning  of  Mr.  E. 
Sutherland  Edwards's  opinion :  "  It  never  occurred  to 
the  dramatists  of  the  Restoration  that  there  was  any- 
thing in  the  opera  that  could  interfere  with  the  well- 
being  of  the  spoken  drama "  ("  LjTical  Drama,"  ii ; 
123-124);  but  rather  to  a  crediting  of  the  statement 
(Ward,  iii ;  320)  which  called  it  forth  :  "  The  complaints 
of  our  dramatists  are  both  loud  and  deep  as  to  the  diffi- 
culty which  they  experienced  in  maintaining  a  struggle 
against "  the  opera. 

It  has  been  questioned  whether  contemporaries  were 
warranted  in  their  belief  that  the  importation  of  operatic 
features  was  detrimental  to  dramatic  art.  Professor 
Ward  (iii ;  330)  agrees  with  them :  "  The  Opera  usurped 
so  large  a  share  of  fashionable  favour  that  the  progress 
of  the  English  drama  could  not  fail  to  suffer  from  the 
success  of  this  foreign  importation  on  the  boards  of 
English  theatres."  But  Mr.  Edwards  is  on  the  negative 
side: 


APPENDIX  A  203 

"  It  can  be  shown  by  historical  evidence  .  .  .  that  opera 
has  never  injured  the  drama."  —  "  Lyrical  Drama,"  ii ;  122. 

Any  discussion  of  opera  versus  drama  of  this  era  is  prima- 
rily a  matter  of  the  extent  to  which  the  latter  depended 
for  its  maintenance  upon  features  that  did  not  appeal 
directly  to  the  understanding.  Such  features  were  vocal 
and  instrumental  music,  dancing,  costume  and  scenery, 
and  their  combination  is  commonly  called  operatic.  The 
connotation  of  this  adjective  has  always  assigned  a  lead- 
ing place  to  the  spectacular  element.  The  meaning  of 
the  noun  "  opera  "  has  somewhat  changed.  The  modern 
use  of  the  word  refers  primarily  and  perhaps  almost 
solely  to  the  presence  of  music,  because  owing  to  the  con- 
tinued and  ever  growing  resort  to  stage  accessories  by  the 
drama  proper,  they  are  no  longer  considered  peculiarly 
characteristic  of  the  opera.  But  in  the  seventeenth 
century  opera  meant  mainly  "  scenes  and  machines,"  and 
the  musical  element,  if  it  was  introduced  at  all,  was, 
as  a  rule,  comparatively  unimportant.  Langbaine's 
few  words  rather  corroborate  such  an  assumption,  and 
Genest  (i ;  139)  expressly  says ;  "  Downes  considers 
Machinery  so  essential  to  an  Opera,  that  he  calls  (Shad- 
well's)  'Lancashire  Witches'  (1681)  a  kind  of  Opera, 
because  there  were  machines  for  the  Witches." 

The  opera  was  in  its  infancy.  No  one  knew  exactly 
what  it  was,  because  it  had  not  attained  sufficient  growth, 
and  was  in  such  a  pliable  condition  that  any  definition 
of  one  day  might  be  obsolete  the  next.  There  was  no 
opera  house  in  London,  nor  one  even  exclusively  given 
over  to  spectacular  productions,  for  although  the  Dorset 
Gardens  was  erected  for  that  sort  of  entertainment,  and 
was  perhaps  chiefly  devoted  to  such  use,  yet  the  managers 
of  that  play-house  were  by  no  means  averse  to  putting 


804  THE  ENGLISH  HEROIC  PLAY 

on  a  tragedy  or  a  comedy  in  which  little  stage  adornment 
of  any  kind  was  required.  Likewise,  although  Sir  W. 
Davenant's  theatre,  from  his  early  association  with  the 
term,  may  have  been  popularly  known  as  the  opera,  yet 
that  does  not  seem  to  have  been  its  official  name,  nor 
would  there  have  been  much  appropriateness  in  such  a 
title  considering  the  general  character  of  its  productions. 
There  was  no  opera-going,  as  distinct  from  a  theatre- 
going,  public ;  there  was  no  rage  for  the  opera  such  as 
characterized  the  beginning  of  the  succeeding  century, 
for  the  manifest  reason  that,  of  opera  pure  and  simple, 
there  was  next  to  none. 

The  number  of  so-called  operas  —  so-called  by  their 
authors  —  produced  or  printed  in  the  confines  of  our 
period  was  not  large,  but  small,  hardly  appreciable  in 
comparison  with  the  hundreds  of  various  sorts  of  dra- 
matic compositions  then  written.  The  "  Siege  of  Rhodes," 
called  an  opera  in  its  first  and  incomplete  form  during 
the  Commonwealth,  was  elaborately  produced  as  such  in 
1662.  Cambert's  and  Grafue's  opera  of  "Ariadne,"  a 
translation  from  the  French,  was  produced  in  1674.  Thus 
twelve  years  elapsed  between  the  first  and  second  opera ; 
the  second  was,  moreover,  a  court  production.  "Albion 
and  Albanius"  was  given  in  the  year  of  Charles  II.'s 
death,  and  "  King  Arthur"  in  1691.  "  Cassandra "  (1692), 
and  "Fairy  Queen"  (1692),  are  far  less  known.  Both 
are  anonymous.  The  latter  is  an  adaptation  of  "Mid- 
summer Night's  Dream,"  and  is  prefixed  by  a  defence  of 
the  opera.  At  the  very  end  of  the  century  are  Durfey's 
"  Cynthia  and  Endymion  "  (1697)  and  "  Brutus  of  Alba  " 
(1697),  published  by  Powell  and  Verbruggen,  and  stolen 
from  Tate's  tragedy  of  the  same  name ;  Settle's  "  World 
in   the    Moon"  (1697),  and    Motteuz's    adaptation   of 


APPENDIX  A  205 

Fletcher's  « Island  Princess  "  (1699).  If  the  "  Biographia 
Dramatica  "  is  to  be  relied  upon  when  the  original  itself 
is  not  at  command,  these  were  all  called  operas.  Two 
others,  not  intended  for  the  stage,  are  Dryden's  "  State 
of  Innocence "  (1676),  and  a  sequel  to  it,  Ecclestton's 
"Noah's  Flood"  (1679).  Alexis's  "Paradise"  (1680) 
and  Betterton's  adaptation  of  Fletcher's  "  Prophetess " 
(1690)  were  styled  dramatic  operas. 

This  list  comprises,  so  far  as  can  be  ascertained  from  a 
study  of  Baker  and  Holliwell,  all  the  self-styled  operas 
given  to  the  world  in  one  form  or  another  from  1656  to 
1702.  "Pastor  Fido,"  in  the  form  of  Settle's  translation 
of  1677,  "  a  pastoral,"  probably  should  be  placed  in  this 
class.  A  Restoration  operatic  form  of  the  "  Tempest " 
was  called  a  comedy,  and  some  so-called  tragedies,  of  which 
Shadwell's  "  Psyche "  (1674)  and  Charles  Davenant's 
"Circe"  (1677)  were  popular  successful  examples,  were 
as  thoroughly  operatic  as  the  operas  in  name. 

The  smallness  of  the  list  would  indicate  that  the  au- 
thors—  doubtless  because  of  the  formlessness  of  the  kind 
—  did  not  like  to  call  their  works  operas,  and  that  the 
word  was  not  as  yet  in  common  use.  Still  the  list 
reveals  a  comparatively  goodly  number  of  Elizabethan 
plays  made  over,  and  improved,  as  w^as  thought,  by 
the  introduction  of  scenes  and  machines.  Some  of  these 
alterations  deviated  from  the  original  much  more  than 
others,  but  in  all  cases  what  was  added  was,  m  short,  the 
operatic  element ;  and  the  boasted  purpose  unquestionably 
was  to  illustrate  the  advance  in  stage  mechanism,  by 
challenging  a  comparison  unfavorable  to  the  preceding 
age.  The  list  shows,  furthermore,  that  the  genesis  of 
English  opera  was  in  tragedy.  It  had,  in  its  earliest 
form,  a  serious  theme,  and  it  was  not  until  the  close  of 


900  THE  ENGLISH  HEROIC  PLAY 

the  century  in  1697,  that  the  "  World  in  the  Moon  " 
appeared,  —  an  early  example,  if  not,  indeed,  the  first,  of 
what  was  to  be  comic  opera.  Gildon,  who  took  up  Lang- 
baine's  work,  remarked  the  change.  "  This  is  something 
unusual,"  said  he,  "  being  a  comical  Opera." 

It  is  plain  that  as  the  study  of  the  heroic  play  necessi- 
tates  a  determination  of  the  heroic  element  in  various 
dramatic  forms,  to  an  even  greater  extent  a  study  of 
seventeenth-century  English  opera  cannot  deal  primarily 
with  so-called  opera,  but  must  be  rather  an  account  of  the 
infusion  and  diffusion  of  the  operatic  element  in  Resto- 
ration plays.  This  element  affected  many  heroic  plays, 
and  yet  some  of  the  most  typical  instances  of  the  heroic 
kind  seem  to  have  been,  in  so  far  as  may  be  ascertained 
through  the  play  itself  and  the  stage  directions,  in  the 
absence  of  external  evidence,  non-operatic.  Such  are 
"Herod  and  Mariamne,"  "Siege  of  Babylon,"  "Try- 
phon,"  and  "  Ibrahim  " ;  the  dignified  "  Mustapha,"  of 
which  Pepys  said,  "  a  most  excellent  play  for  words  and  de- 
sign, as  ever  I  did  see  " ;  one  of  Betterton's  successes,  the 
"  English  Princess  ";  and  the  higlily  lauded  "  Don  Carlos." 

There  is  good  reason  for  the  existence  of  the  operatic 
element  in  Restoration  tragedies.  In  them  the  back- 
ground is  of  war :  the  hero  wooes  in  armor,  the  battle- 
call  impends.  Thus  the  subject  invites  military  display 
and  martial  music.  They  must  have  been  literally  noisy, 
the  drum  much  heard.  Dryden  in  his  "  Essay  on  Heroic 
Plays  "  advocates  noise  and  fighting : 

"  To  those  who  object  my  frequent  use  of  drums  and 
trumpets,  and  my  representation  of  battles;  I  answer,  I 
introduced  them  not  on  the  English  stage;  Shakespeare 
used  them  frequently ;  and  though  Jonson  shows  no  bat- 
tle in  his '  Catiline,'  yet  you  hear  from  behind  the  scenes 


APPENDIX  A  207 

the  sounding  of  trumpets,  and  the  shouts  of  fighting 
armies.  But,  I  add  further,  that  these  warlike  instru- 
ments, and  even  their  presentation  of  fighting  on  the 
stage,  are  no  more  than  necessary  to  produce  tlie  effects 
of  an  heroic  play." 

The  characters  were  royal  as  well  as  martial,  and 
therefore  richness  of  costume  and  scenery  was  appro- 
priate, and  afforded  an  opportunity  to  the  costuraer  and 
the  scene-painter.  The  visible  appearance  of  the  super- 
natural was  common ;  devils,  ghosts,  and  spirits  of  all 
kinds  abounded,  and  thus  the  ingenuity  of  the  stage 
cai'penter  was  exercised  in  the  construction  of  machines. 
Then  there  was  dancing,  and  its  rise  and  popularity  in 
England  as  a  form  of  theatrical  attraction  was  of  course 
contemporaneous  with  the  introduction  of  women  on  the 
stage ;  and  so  there  was  a  demand  for  dancing-masters. 
A  great  many  of  the  serious  plays  contained  one  or  more 
of  these  elements,  and  owed  their  success  in  part  to  the 
costumer,  stage-carpenter,  scene-painter,  dancing-master, 
and  musician. 

Shadwell,  in  the  preface  to  "  Psyche,"  appears  to  have 
acknowledged  this  indebtedness  more  frankly  than  any 
other  of  his  contemporaries : 

"  All  the  instrumental  musick  (which  is  not  mingled 
with  the  vocal)  was  composed  by  that  great  master. 
Seignior  Gio.  Baptista  Draghi,  Master  of  the  Italian 
Musick  to  the  King.  The  dances  were  made  by  the 
most  famous  master  of  France,  Monsieur  St.  Andree. 
The  Scenes  were  painted  by  the  ingenious  artist,  Mr. 
Stephenson.  In  those  things  that  concern  the  Ornament 
or  Decoration  of  the  Play,  the  great  Industry  and  Care 
of  Mr.  Betterton  ought  to  be  remembered,  at  whose 
desire  I  wrote  upon  this  subject." 


208  THE  ENGLISH  HEROIC  PLAY 

There  were  many  plays  in  which  operatic  features, 
although  present,  were  of  little  consequence.  Such  are 
"Destruction  of  Troy,"  "Great  Favorite,"  "Marcelia," 
"  Rival  Kings,",  and  "  Siege  of  Memphis."  There  were 
others  which  would  admit  of  such  features,  and  yet  now 
naught  but  the  words  remain,  and  it  is  difficult  to  deter- 
mine to  what  extent  other  features  entered  —  so  fleeting 
are  the  names  and  things  that  make  for  theatrical  rather 
than  for  dramatic  success.  There  are  still  others  wherein 
the  gorgeousness  of  their  production  has  become  stage- 
legend,  wherein  also  their  total  effect  and  success  were 
largely  due  to  external  means  rather  than,  and  sometimes 
in  spite  of,  their  dramatic  quality.  Settle's  "  Empress 
of  Morocco"  was  one  —  wondrously  staged,  immediately 
successful,  arousing  discussion  and  enmity,  and  dramati- 
cally without  merit.  Most  of  Dryden's  heroic  plays  de- 
pended partly  for  their  success  upon  externals ;  although 
amazing  literary  achievements,  they  were  produced  with 
all  the  advantages  of  accessories  that  the  theatre  pos- 
sessed. In  them  there  was  considerable  music  which  was 
important,  although  incidental,  and  the  fact  that  Purcell 
composed  for  "  Indian  Emperor,"  "  Indian  Queen," 
"  Aureng-Zebe,"  and  "  Tyrannic  Love  "  (Hogarth  claims 
that  the  last-named  piece  was  made  less  absurd  by  the 
beauty  of  the  music  than  it  would  otherwise  have  been) 
has  assured  their  permanence  in  the  annals  of  another 
art  besides  literature.  Dryden  further  admits,  in  the 
"  Essay  "  above  referred  to,  that  he  is  not  at  all  ashamed 
of  resorting  to  stage  devices :  "  That  the  Red  Bull  has 
formerly  done  tlie  same,  ...  is  no  more  an  argument 
against  our  practice  than  it  would  be  for  a  physician  to 
forebear  an  approved  medicine,  because  a  montebauk  has 
used  it  with  success." 


APPENDIX  A  209 

Lovers  of  literature  usually  claim  that  the  combi- 
nation of  literature  and  music  is  pernicious  to  their  art, 
for  although  a  lyric  independently  written  may  then  be 
set  to  music  so  happily  that  the  two  become  inseparably 
associated,  the  conscious  writing  of  words  to  suit  music 
already  composed  is  frequently  incompatible  with  the 
natural  expression  of  poetic  genius.  Dryden's  disrespect 
for  the  opera  was  partly  due  to  his  appreciation  of  this 
fact.  Ward,  as  a  historian,  thus  insists  on  the  literary 
worthlessness  of  operas  :  "  Few  English  dramatic  works 
possessing  any  literary  importance  are  included  among 
the  contributions  to  this  hybrid  species."  And  Addison 
was  so  impressed  with  the  incompatibility  of  the  two 
arts  that  he  came  to  the  conclusion  that  "nothing  ia 
capable  of  being  set  to  music  that  is  not  nonsense." 

So  the  influence  of  opera  upon  the  heroic  play  and 
upon  Restoration  drama  in  general,  refers  only  second- 
arily to  the  relation  between  literature  and  music,  to  the 
introduction  of  a  new  art  into  the  previously  peculiar 
field  of  the  spoken  drama.  But  in  the  main  it  means 
nothing  more  nor  less  than  a  hitherto  unprecedented 
recognition  of  the  numerous  and  varied  features  that 
make  for  theatrical  effectiveness ;  and  whereas  they 
were  from  the  beginning  considered  under  the  broad 
head  "  operatic,"  they  antedated,  in  fact,  that  set  art-form 
which  distinguished  the  early  years  of  the  eighteenth 
century, — a  form  which  owed  little  to  its  early  English 
counterpart.  "  It  was  perfectly  true  that,  at  that  time 
*  our  English  music  was  quite  rooted  out.'  .  .  .  Purcell, 
though  not  twenty  years  dead,  was  as  clean  forgotten  as 
if  he  had  never  been."  —  Hogarth,  i;  218. 

The  eighteenth  century,  moreover,  witnessed  the  de- 
cline of  both  music  and  opera :  "  What  hope  or  expec- 


210  THE  ENGLISH  HEROIC  PLAY 

tation  then  can  the  public  entertain  of  receiving  that 
rational,  that  irreproachable  delight  which  the  theatre  is 
capable  of  affording  us  through  the  medium  of  music? 
If  managers  know  not  what  it  is,  and  if  it  is  not  to  be 
known  through  the  theatre,  much  less,  heaven  knows,  is 
it  to  be  known  through  the  opera ;  a  spectacle  where  the 
dance  is  the  plot  and  the  opera  the  episode ;  but  remarks 
of  this  complexion  will  come  better  after  I  have  gone 
through  an  account  of  music,  which,  during  forty  years, 
grew  into  the  highest  perfection  in  this  country,  and  is 
now  simk  into  insignificance."  —  Dibdin  (1795),  V;  213, 

At  the  Restoration  arose  the  question  which  has  lasted 
to  the  present  day,  as  to  the  legitimacy  of  the  dramatic 
poets  permitting  or  inviting  the  introduction  of  parts  that 
appealed  primarily  to  the  eye  and  the  ear  rather  than  to 
the  understanding  for  the  attainment  of  a  definite  object. 
Although  Dryden  did  not  believe  in  operatic  features  sup- 
planting the  play  proper  in  importance,  he  approved  the 
introduction  of  externals  for  the  purpose  of  helping  the 
verisimilitude.  He  says  in  the  "  Essay  "  :  They  "  are  no 
more  than  necessary  to  produce  the  effects  of  an  heroic 
play ;  that  is,  to  raise  the  imagination  of  the  audience,  and 
to  persuade  them,  for  the  time,  that  what  they  behold  on 
the  theatre  is  really  performed.  The  poet  is  then  to 
endeavour  an  absolute  dominion  over  the  minds  of  the 
spectators,  for  though  our  fancy  will  contribute  to  its  own 
deceit,  yet  a  writer  ought  to  help  its  operation." 

Gildon(?)  (Life  of  Betterton,  p.  6)  is  of  the  same  opin- 
ion :  "  Tho  this  be  affirm'd  by  some,  others  have  laid  it 
to  the  Charge  of  Mr.  Betterton  as  the  first  Innovator  on 
our  rude  Stage,  as  a  Crime ;  nay  as  the  Destruction  of 
good  Playing;  but  I  think  with  very  little  Show  of 
Reason.  .  .  .    For  how  that  which  helps  the  Represeuta- 


APPENDIX  A  211 

tion  by  assisting  the  pleasing  Delusion  of  the  Mind  in 
regard  of  the  place,  should  spoil  the  Acting,  I  cannot 
imagine."  On  the  other  hand,  this  growing  tendency 
had  its  censors. 

It  may  be  difficult  to  free  the  mind  from  the  conviction 
that  attention  to  the  externals  of  stage-craft  is  inimical  to 
the  fullest  exercise  of  the  imagination,  so  deep-rooted 
is  the  modern  credence  in  the  superior  keenness  of  the 
Elizabethan  audience  in  this  regard  over  all  its  successors- 
It  would  seem  that,  necessarily,  absence  of  stage-adorn- 
ment must  have  concentrated  the  attention  to  a  degree 
since  unequalled  upon  the  thought  of  the  writer  and  upon 
the  actor's  delivery.  Nevertheless,  the  change  from  a 
barren  to  a  furnished  stage  was  inevitable,  as  was  also 
the  change  from  the  conception  that  a  play  was  made 
by  the  partnership  of  poet  and  actor  to  the  conception 
of  it  as  a  product  of  the  harmonious  combination  of  sev- 
eral arts ;  and  there  is  danger  of  over-estimating  the  dele- 
terious effects  of  this  combination.  For  the  play,  after  all, 
remains  the  thing,  and  there  have  been  other  great  actors 
than  and  since  Burbage.  The  player's  art  was  still  an  art 
in  the  eighteenth  century,  and  the  decline  of  tragedy,  if  it 
was  at  all  related  to  the  rise  of  stage-craft,  certainly  was 
not  brought  about  principally  by  that  rise.  At  any  rate, 
evidence  seems  to  be  wanting  that  the  rhyming  dramatists 
of  the  Restoration  were  controlled  to  any  marked  extent  by 
the  presence  of  operatic  features.  Such  features  were  not 
inherent  but  incidental,  and  not  invariable,  as  there  are 
plays  of  the  same  species  with  and  without  them.  And 
that  they  do  not  determine  the  species  is  indicated  by  the 
similarity  of  the  plays  with  this  element  to  those  with- 
out it. 

The  operatic  and  heroic  elements  existed  side  by  side 


212  THE  ENGLISH  HEROIC  PLAY 

with  strangely  little  directing  power  over  each  other. 
As  the  century  advanced,  a  few  men  of  pronounced  abil- 
ity, with  a  liking  for  mauners  and  satire,  succeeded  in 
perpetuating  their  own  taste  and  that  of  their  times  by 
the  composition  of  so-called  Restoration  comedy.  But 
the  flowering  time  of  Restoration  tragedy  was  earlier  —  in 
the  reign  of  Charles  U.  Both  products  indicate  a  grater 
interest  in  what  appealed  to  the  understanding  than  these 
forty  years  of  dramatic  activity  are  usually  credited  with. 
There  are  no  English  plays  that  are  more  coldly  intel- 
lectual than  Congreve's,  and  heroic  plays  were  intended 
to  make  an  intellectual  appeal ;  the  long  rhymed  speeches 
indicate  an  attention  real  or  affected  in  the  art  of  deliv- 
ery ;  and  the  frequency  of  argumentation,  a  liking  for  a 
certain  kind  of  mental  exercise. 

Therefore,  although  it  is  true  that  operatic  features 
entered  into  most  heroic  plays,  the  primary  distinction 
of  appealing  to  the  understanding  always  existed,  and 
the  heroic  element,  while  it  lasted,  continued  true  to  its 
ideals. 


APPENDIX  B 

A  BRIEF  SURVEY  OF  THREE  HEROIC  PLAYS 
IN  OUTLINE,  AS  CONTRASTED  WITH  SHAKE- 
SPEARE 

SHAKESPEARE'S  KING  RICHARD  III 

DRAMATIS  PERSONS 

King  Edward  the  Fourth,  1 

Edward,   Prince   of    Wales,   afterward   King  I  sons  to  the 

Edward  V,  f      kiuff. 

Richard,  Duke  of  York,  J 

George,  Duke  of  Clarence,  "]  brothers  to  the 

Richard,  Duke  of  Gloucester,  afterward  King  }-         j^. 

Richard  III,  J  ^' 

A  young  son  of  Clarence. 

Henry,  Earl  of  Richmond,  afterward  King  Henry  VII. 
Cardinal  Bourchier,  Archbishop  of  Canterbury. 
Thomas  Rotherham,  Archbishop  of  York. 
John  Morton,  Bishop  of  Ely. 
Duke  of  Buckingham. 
Duke  of  Norfolk. 
Earl  of  Surrey,  his  son. 
Earl  Rivers,  brother  to  Elizabeth. 
Marquis  of  Dorset  and  Lord  Grey,  sons  to  Elizabeth. 
Earl  of  Oxford. 
Lord  Hastings. 

Lord  Stanley,  called  also  Earl  of  Derby. 
Lord  Lovel. 
Sir  Thomas  Vaughan. 
Sir  Richard  Ratcliff. 
Sir  William  Catesby. 

213 


214  THE  ENGLISH  HEROIC  PLAY 

Sir  James  Tyrrel. 

Sir  James  Blount. 

Sir  Walter  Herbert. 

Sir  Robert  Brakenbury,  Lieutenant  of  the  Tower. 

Christopher  Urswick,  a  priest.    Another  priest. 

Tressel  and  Berkeley,  gentlemen  attending  on  the  Lady  Anne. 

Lord  Mayor  of  London.    Sheriff  of  Wiltshire. 

Elizabeth,  queen  to  King  Edward  IV. 

Margaret,  widow  of  King  Henry  VI. 

Duchess  of  York,  mother  to  King  Edward  IV. 

Lady  Anne,  widow  of  Edward,  Prince  of  Wales,  son  to  King 
Henry  VI:  afterward  married  to  Richard. 

A  young  daughter  of  Clarence  (Margaret  Plantagenet). 

Ghosts  of  those  murdered  by  Richard  III,  Lords  and  other  at- 
tendants ;  a  Pursuivant,  Scrivener,  Citizens,  Murderers, 
Messengers,  Soldiers,  etc. 


CARYL'S  (?)  ENGLISH  PRINCESS 

THE  PERSONS 

King  Richard  the  Third. 

Queen  Dowager  of  Edward  the  Fourth. 

Princess  Elizabeth,  daughter  of  Edward  the  Fourth. 

Earl  of  Richmond,  Crown'd  Henry  the  Seventh. 

Earl  of  Oxford. 

Lord  Stanly. 

liord  Strange,  his  son. 

Lord  Chauden  of  Bretany. 

Sir  William  Stanley. 

Chariot,  page  to  the  Princess. 

Lord  Lovel. 

Sir  William  Catesby. 

Sir  Richard  Ratclife. 

Miles  Forrest. 

The  Prior  of  Litchfield. 

A  Captain,  a  Lieutenant,  Souldiers,  Guards,  and  Attendants. 


APPENDIX  B  216 

OUTLINE  OF  THE   PLOT 

Act  I 

Richard  the  Third  desires  for  his  wife,  Princess  Eliza- 
beth, daughter  of  Henry  the  Fourth,  who  is  engaged  to 
Earl  of  Richmond,  crowned  Henry  the  Seventh.  He 
commissions  Sir  William  Stanley  to  advance  his  cause. 
Elizabeth's  mother,  the  queen,  advises  the  princess  to 
accept  Richard,  but  she  refuses  to  do  so. 

Act  II 

Concerns  the  relation  of  minor  characters,  particularly 
Sir  William  Stanley,  to  the  main  plot,  and  the  story  of 
Chariot,  the  page. 

Act  ni 

Scene  between  the  princess  and  the  king,  in  which  he, 
after  wooing  in  vain,  says  he  will  see  to  her  death. 
First  appearance  of  Richmond  in  his  camp.  Enter  a 
prior,  who  prophesies  for  him  success  in  love  and  war. 

Act  IV 

Description  of  scene  in  the  camp  of  both  Richmond 
and  the  king.  Richmond  resolves  to  visit  the  princess 
the  night  before  the  battle,  which  he  does.  The  king 
has  a  dream  in  which  he  sees  the  ghosts  of  those  he  has 
murdered. 

Act  V 

Richmond  kills  the  king  and  successftdly  wooes  the 
princess. 


216  THE  ENGLISH  HEROIC  PLAY 

The  above  is  the  main  story  of  this  play.  The  princi- 
pal under-stories  are  those  (1)  of  Chariot  and  (2)  Sir 
William  Stanley.  Chariot  is  the  runaway  daughter  of 
Lord  Chanden,  of  Bretany,  in  Richmond's  army.  She 
falls  in  love  with  Richmond,  is  disguised  as  a  boy,  — 
page  to  the  princess, — carries  love  messages  from  the 
earl  to  the  princess,  and  remains  so  true  to  her  higher 
self,  that  in  the  last  act  she  has  the  princess  change 
costumes  with  her  that  danger  may  fall  upon  herself  if 
detected.  She  finally  retires  to  a  monastery.  (2)  Sir 
William  Stanley  hopelessly  loves  the  princess.  In  the 
last  act,  as  a  matter  of  self-sacrifice,  he  disguises  himself 
as  Richmond,  in  order  to  deceive  Richard,  thus  success- 
fully helping  Richmond  in  his  victory. 

The  following  song  (Act  III,  Sc.  4)  is  in  character  with 
the  prevailing  atmosphere  of  the  play. 

SONG 

I 

«*  Tyrant,  thou  seek'st  in  vain 
With  her  pure  Blood  thy  guilty  Sword  to  stain ; 
Heaven  does  that  Sacred  Blood  design 
To  be  the  Source  of  an  Immortal  Line. 
Death  will  not  dare  to  touch  that  Heart, 
Which  Love  has  chosen  for  his  dart. 

Choru3 

Fair  Innocence  and  Beauty  are 
Of  watchful  Heaven  the  chiefest  care ; 
But  the  devouring  Monster  shall 
A  sacrifice  to  Justice  fall. 


APPENDIX  B 


217 


n 

Richmond  does  flye  to  your  Redress ; 
(Love's  Messenger  can  do  no  less.) 
His  Sword  shall  with  one  Blow 
Cut  off  your  Fetters  and  the  Tyrant  too. 
All  Resistance  vain  will  prove 
When  Valour  is  inspir'd  by  Love. 

Chorus 

Tyrants'  by  Heaven  and  Earth  are  curst ; 
They  swell  with  Blood  untill  they  burst ; 
But  Lovers  are  wise  Nature's  care ; 
What  Tyrants  ruine  they  repair." 


SHAKESPEARE'S  ANTONY  AND  CLEOPATRA 


DEAMATIB  PERSONS 


1 


Mark  Antony, 

Octavius  Caesar,  |^  triumvirs. 

M.  ^melius  Lepidus,  J 

Demitius  Enobarbus, " 

Ventidius, 

Eros, 

Scarus, 

Dercetas, 

Demetrius, 

Pliilo, 

Mecsenas, 

Agrippa, 

Dolabella, 

Proculeius, 

Thyreus, 

Gallos. 


friends  to  Antony. 


friends  to  Caesar. 


'  attendants  on  Cleopatra. 


218  THE  ENGLISH  HEROIC  PLAT 

Menas,  I 

Menecrates,  !■  friends  to  Pompey. 

Varrius.  J 

Taurus,  lieutenant-general  to  Csesar. 

Canidius,  lieutenant-general  to  Antony. 

Silius,  an  officer  in  Ventidius's  army. 

Euphronius,  an  ambassador  from  Antony  to  Csssar. 

Alexas, 

Mardian,  a  Eunuch, 

Selucus, 

Diomedes, 

A  Soothsayer.    A  Clown. 

Cleopatra,  queen  of  Egypt. 

Octavia,  sister  to  Csesar  and  wife  to  Antony. 

Charmian ,  I  attendants  on  Cleopatra. 

Iras,  i 

Officers,  Soldiers,  Messengers,  and  other  attendants. 

SEDLEY'S  ANTONY  AND  CLEOPATRA 

PERSONS  REPRESENTED 
Caesar.  Photinus. 

Lucilius,  a  Roman.  Cleopatra. 

Tliyreus.  Octavia. 

Antony.  Iras. 

Canidius.  Charmion. 

Guards,  Messengers,  Villains,  Souldiers,  and  Attendants,  Men 
and  Women. 

OUTLINE  OF  THE  PLOT 

Act  I 

Description  of  state  of  affairs  after  the  sea-fight; 
Antony  controlled  by  Cleopatra;  Hatred  of  Egyptian 
Lords  for  him ;  Roman  friends  advise  him  to  fight  and 
save  his  honor. 


APPENDIX  B  219 

Act  II 

Photinus,  Caesar's  spy,  evidently  an  Egyptian  who  loves 
Iras,  seeks  through  proving  false  to  Antony  and  friendly 
to  Caesar,  to  gain  Antony's  throne  and  have  his  love  for 
Iras  rewarded,  as  she  promises.  Mecsenas  advises  Caesar 
to  take  harsh  measures  against  Antony,  and  tells  Octavia 
he  thus  acts  because  of  love  for  her,  which  learning  she 
commands  him  in  the  name  of  that  love  to  cease. 

Act  III 

Thyreus,  ambassador  from  Rome,  offers  peace ;  he  has 
a  private  interview  with  Cleopatra,  in  which  he  tells  her 
not  to  fear  for  herself  whatever  becomes  of  Antony.  He 
makes  love  to  Cleopatra,  and  they  are  discovered  by 
Antony.  Cleopatra  claims  innocence.  The  army  shout 
for  Thyreus's  release. 

Act  IV 

Octavia  accuses  Caesar  of  taking  harsh  measures  against 
Antony,  not  for  love  of  her  as  he  feigned,  but  for  ambition. 

Antony  kills  Thyreus  and  learns  of  Cleopatra's  inno- 
cence from  him.  Photinus  discovered  in  his  treachery, 
yet  pardoned  by  Antony  who  is  victorious. 

Act  V 

Caesar  victorious.  News  brought  to  Antony.  Photinus 
in  order  to  get  Antony  out  of  the  way  tells  him  Cleopatra 
is  dead.  Antony  thereupon  wounds  himself.  Lucilius 
declines  to  be  instrumental  in  his  lord's  death  and  kills 
himself.  Antony  dies  in  Cleopatra's  arms.  Cleopatra 
takes  unto  herself  an  asp.     Charmion  does  likewise,  first 


220  THE  ENGLISH  HEROIC   PLAY 

applying  it  to  Iras  who  would  live.  All  then  die.  On 
which  scene  Caesar  and  his  men  enter.  Photinus  con- 
summates the  death  of  Iras,  on  which  Iras'  brother  kills 
him. 

There  are  two  scenes  which  are  representative  of  Res- 
toration treatment  of  a  tragedy  theme:  one  is  a  love 
meeting  between  Antony  and  the  Egyptian  (Act  I,  So.  2), 
and  the  other  is  Antony's  death  (Act  V). 

"  Chop.   For  you  my  Peoples  love  and  more  I  lost, 
Must  I  not  keep  what  has  so  dearly  cost  ? 

Ant.  Ah  Madam,  you  shou'd  take  the  weakest  part. 
And  help  a  Lover  to  defend  his  Heart, 
Tho  swounding  Men  with  ease  resign  their  Breath, 
Their  careful  Friends  still  pull  'ra  back  from  Death. 
You  should  my  Lethargy  of  Honour  chide, 
And  drive  me  tho  imwilling,  from  your  side. 
Die  at  your  feet  the  meanest  Lover  might. 
But  in  your  quan-el  the  whole  World  shall  fight 

Cleop.   If  I  am  Captive  to  the  Romans  made ; 
Surpriz'd  in  this  weak  place,  or  else  betray'd ; 
Think  not  I'le  live  to  be  redeem'd  again. 
And  like  a  Slave  of  my  proud  Lords  complain. 
At  the  first  Dawn  of  my  ill  Fate  I'le  die. 

A  nt.  O  name  not  Death  we'l  meet  in  Triumph  here : 
I'le  raise  the  Siege  e're  you  have  time  to  fear. 

Cleop.  But  then  your  Love,  in  absence,  will  it  last? 
Men  think  of  joys  to  come,  and  slight  the  past. 

Ant.  My  Heart  shall  like  those  Trees  that  East  does 
show. 
Where  Blossoms  and  ripe  Fruit  hang  on  one  Bough. 
With  new  desires,  soft  hopes,  at  once  be  prest ; 
And  all  those  Riper  Joys,  Love  gives  the  blest. 


APPENDIX  B  221 

Courage  and  Love  shall  sway  each  in  their  turn, 

I'le  fight  to  conquer,  conquer  to  return. 

Seeming  Ambitious  to  the  publick  view, 

I'le  make  my  private  end  and  dearer,  You. 

This  Storm  once  past ;  in  Peace  and  Love  we'l  Raign, 

Like  the  Immortal  Gods,  the  Giants  slain. 

Cleop.  Moments  to  absent  Lovers  tedious  grow ; 
'Tis  not  how  time,  but  how  the  mind  does  go. 
And  once  Antonius  wou'd  have  thought  so  too. 

Ant.   Dearer  than  ever  think  not  that  I  part. 
Without  the  utmost  Torment  of  my  Heart. 
Whil'st  you  perswade,  your  danger  chides  me  stay, 
Make  me  not  cast  me  and  your  Self  away. 
How  well  I  lov'd,  you  did  at  Actium  see, 
When  to  be  near  you  I  left  Victory. 
And  chose  to  be  companion  of  your  flight, 
Rather  than  conquer  in  a  distant  Fight. 
Press  not  that  heart  you  know  so  well,  too  far, 
Our  Fortune  will  no  second  frailty  bear. 

Cleop.   The  truest  Misers  choose  to  sit  about, 
And  tell  their  wealth  :  but  dare  not  trust  it  out. 
I  know  as  well  as  you,  'tis  fit  you  go, 
Yet  what  is  best  I  cannot  let  you  do. 

Ant.   For  my  attendance  I  some  few  will  take ; 
All  other  Romans  of  your  Guard  I  make. 

Cleop.  If  you  must  go,  it  quickly  shall  appear, 
My  love  sought  this  delay,  and  not  my  fear. 
When  you  attaque,  we'l  sally  from  the  Town, 
And  blood  instead  of  Nile  our  Plain  shall  drown. 
We'l  in  the  midst  of  Ccesar's  Army  meet, 
And  like  Bellona  I  my  Mars  will  greet. 

Ant.   Wou'd  Goddesses  themselves  to  me  endear. 
In  Cleopatra's  shape  they  must  appear. 


SS8  THE  ENGLISH  HEROIC  PLAT 

Cleop.  My  heart  can  danger  though  not  absence  bear, 
To  Love,  'tis  Wax,  but  Adamant  to  Fear. 

Ant.  Mine  has  such  Courage  from  your  Firmness  took, 
That  I  can  ahnost  bear  a  parting  look. 

Cleop.   Take  it ;  and  each  unto  their  charge  make  haste. 

Ant.  Our  hardest  victory  I  hope  is  past. 

Exeunt  omnes." 

Enter  Antonius,  Cleopatra,  Charmion  and  Iras 
In  the  Monument 

"  Anto.    'Twas  I  that  pull'd  on  you  the  hate  of  Rome, 
And  all  your  Ills,  past,  present,  and  to  come. 
It  is  not  fit  nor  possible  I  live. 
And  my  dear  Queen,  it  growes  unkind  to  grieve. 

Cleop.  *Twas  I  that  lost  you  in  each  Roman  mind ; 
And  to  your  ruine  can  you  still  be  kind  ? 
How  can  you  bear  this  Tyranny  of  F'ate, 
And  not  the  cause,  your  Cleopatra  hate. 

Anto.    So  Venus  look't,  when  the  Idalian  boar 
The  tender  side  of  her  Adonis  tore ; 
Nor  yields  ray  Queen  in  Beauty  or  in  grief. 
When  half  the  World  under  my  rule  was  plac't 
Your  love  was  all  the  joy  that  I  cou'd  tast, 
It  was  my  chief  delight,  and  is  my  last. 
I  dye,  and  have  but  one  short  word  to  say  ; 
But  you  must  swear,  my  Queen  you  will  obey. 

Cleop.  By  all  our  love  I  will  my  death  command, 
And  see  the  eager  duty  of  my  hand. 

Anto.  Your  death  !  it  is  the  only  thing  I  fear; 
And  Fate  no  other  way  can  reach  me  here. 

Cleop.  Down  from  a  throne  to  any  private  State ; 


APPENDIX  B  223 

It  is  a  dismal  Precipice  to  the  Great. 
I  giddy  with  the  honid  prospect  grow ; 
And  shall  fall  in,  unless  Death  help  me  now. 

Anto.   Heav'n  that  success  does  to  my  Arms  deny, 
Whispers  a  Roman  Soul,  and  bids  him  dye. 
Our  case  is  different ;  to  Caesar  sue, 
Tho  me  he  hate,  he  needs  must  pity  you. 
Your  Beauty  and  my  Love  were  aU  your  Crime, 
And  you  must  live  my  Queen. 

Cleop.  When  you  are  dead  — 
To  be  despis'd,  reproach't,  in  triumph  lead ; 
A  Queen  and  Slave  !  who  wou'd  not  life  renounce, 
Rather  than  bear  those  distant  names  at  once. 

Anto.    But  you  may  live  a  Queen;  say  you  obey'd 
Through  fear ;  and  were  compelled  to  give  me  aid ; 
That  all  your  Subjects  private  orders  had 
Not  to  resist  him,  and  my  Cause  betray'd. 
Say,  that  at  last  you  did  my  death  procure ; 
Say  anything  that  may  your  Life  and  Crown  secure. 

Cleop.  'Twere  false  and  base,  it  rather  shall  be  said 
I  kill'd  myself  when  I  beheld  you  dead. 

Anto.    Me  the  unhappy  cause  of  all  your  wo ! 
Your  own,  and  your  dear  Country's  overthrow. 
Remember  I  was  jealous,  rash,  soon  mov'd. 
Suspected  no  less  fiercely  than  I  lov'd ; 
How  I  Thyreus  kiU'd,  your  Love  accus'd. 
And  to  your  kind  defence  my  faith  ref us'd. 
From  shame  and  rage  I  soon  shall  be  at  rest. 
And  Death  of  thousand  ills  hath  chose  the  best. 

\_H.e  faints. 

Cleop.  O  stay !  and  take  me  with  you. 

Anto.    Dearest  Queen, 
Let  my  Life  end  before  your  Death  begin. 


224  THE  ENGLISH  HEROIC  PLAY 

0  Rome!  thy  freedom  does  with  me  expire, 

And  thou  art  left,  obtaining  thy  desire."  [Dies. 

Antony  says  (Act  II,  Sc.  2)  that  he  married  Octavia  to 
avert  a  "  growing  storm." 

"  Cleop.  O  ray  Antonius  I  how  I  fear  this  Peace  I 
And  must  I  to  Octavia  yield  my  place  ? 

1  love  you  so,  that  very  sound  wou'd  kill. 
And  leave  you  free  the  promise  to  fulfil. 

Ant.   Were  I  to  gain  the  Empire  of  mankind. 
And  for  that  pow'r  Eternity  assign 'd ; 
I  cou'd  not  to  the  hateful  change  submit. 
Nor  my  best  Queen  so  barbarously  quit. 

Cleop.  But  your  Octavia,  loving,  young,  and  fair, 
And  such  a  Rival !  how  can  I  but  fear? 

A  nt.   Her  Hymen  never  did  a  Moment  please, 
The  hard  Condition  of  a  needful  Peace ; 
From  every  part  I  saw  the  growing  storm, 
A  sudden  shelter  in  her  arms  I  took. 
Which  when  'twas  over  I  again  forsook." 

And  he  excuses  his  present  conduct  thus : 

"  From  past  engagements,  present  Love,  set  free. 
Hymen  is  but  the  Vulgars  Deity." 

One,  to  whom  Hymen  is  but  the  Vulgars  Deity,  would 
naturally  think  well  of  Cleopatra's  virtue. 

"T' attempt  the  spotless  Honor  of  my  Queen, 
Is  such  a  Crime,  as  it  is  death  to  mean." 

(Act  IV,  Sc.  4.) 

Though  Cleopatra  is  not  popularly  regarded  for  her 
spotless  honor,  yet  mention  of  it  is  not  entirely  unprece- 
dented.   Cf .  Chaucer's  "  Legend  of  Good  Women  " : 


APPENDIX  B  225 

"  This  noble  quene  eek  lovede  so  this  knight, 
Through  his  desert,  and  for  his  chivalrye. 
As  certainly,  but  —  if  that  bokes  lye, 
He  was  of  persone  and  of  gentilesse. 
And  of  discrecioun  and  hardiness, 
Worthy  to  any  wight  that  liven  may. 
And  she  was  fair  as  is  the  rose  in  May. 
And,  for  to  maken  shortly  is  the  beste. 
She  wex  his  wyf ,  and  hadde  him  as  her  leste." 


SHAKESPEARE'S  HENRY  FIFTH 

PERSONS  REPEESENTED 

King  Henry  the  Fifth. 

Duke  of  Gloucester,  )  ,     ^,        ^    ..     rr- 
T^  1-      *  T>  J*    J        (  brothers  to  the  King. 
Duke  of  Bedford,       )  ** 

Duke  of  Exeter,  uncle  to  the  King. 

Duke  of  York,  cousin  to  the  King. 

Earls  of  Salisbury,  Westmoreland,  and  Warwick. 

Archbishop  of  Canterbury. 

Bishop  of  Ely. 

Earl  of  Cambridge,  "] 

Lord  Scroop,  |-  conspirators  against  the  King. 

Sir  Thomas  Grey,     J 

Sir  Thomas  Erpingham,  Gower,  Fluellen,  Macmorris,  Jamy, 

officers  in  King  Henry's  army. 
Bates,  Court,  Williams,  soldiers  in  the  same. 
Nym,  Bardolph,  Pistol,  formerly  servants   to   Falstaff,  now 

soldiers  in  the  same. 
Boy,  servant  to  them. 
A  herald. 
Chorus. 

Charles  the  Sixth,  King  of  France. 
Lewis,  the  Dauphin. 
Dukes  of  Burgundy,  Orleans,  and  Bourbon. 


226  THE  ENGLISH  HEROIC  PLAY 

The  Constable  of  France. 
Rambures  and  Grandpre,  French  lords. 
GK>vernor  of  Harfleur. 
Montjoy,  a  French  herald. 
Ambassadors  to  the  King  of  England. 
Isabel,  Queen  of  France. 
Katharine,  daughter  to  Charles  and  Isabel. 
Alice,  a  lady  attending  on  the  Princess  Katharine. 
Quickly,  Pistol's  wife,  an  hostess. 

Lords,  Ladies,  Officers,  French  and  English  Soldiers,  Messen- 
gers and  Attendants. 


ORRERY'S  HENRY  FIFTH 

PEE80N8 

Henry  the  Fifth.  Duke  of  Burgundy. 

Duke  of  Bedford.  Constable  of  France. 

Duke  of  Exeter.  Bishop  of  Arras. 

Earl  of  Warwick.  Earl  of  Charoloys. 

Owen  Tudor.  Count  de  Chastel. 

Archbishop  of  Canterbury.  Count  de  Blaumont. 

The  Dauphin.  Monsier  Colemore. 

WOMEN 

Queen  of  France.  Countess  of  La  Mar. 

Princess  Katharine.  A  French  Lady. 

Princess  Anne  of  Burgundy. 

OUTLINE  OF  THE  PLOT 

Act  I 

The  war  between  France  and  England — then  Tudor's 
love  for  Katharine  related  by  herself,  and  Bedford's  love 
for  Anne  by  herself. 


APPENDIX  B 


Act  II 


This  may  be  divided  into  three  parts.  (1)  The  king 
informs  his  courtiers  of  his  terms  of  peace  to  France 
and  of  his  love  for  Katharine.  (2)  The  queen  debates 
with  her  courtiers  whether  to  yield  to  England  or  not. 
(3)  Tudor,  the  lover  of  Katharine,  expresses  to  Katharine 
the  king's  love  for  her,  and  is  made  to  understand  that 
his  own  case  is  hopeless. 

Act  III 

The  political  position  of  the  Duke  of  Burgundy  de- 
scribed. The  king  visits  Katharine  incognito,  discovers 
himself,  and  both  are  discovered  by  the  Dauphin,  whom 
the  king  disarms.  Katharine  shows  the  king  means  of 
escape. 

Act  IV 

Unsuccessful  peace  negotiations  between  French  and 
English.  Scene  between  the  king  and  Tudor,  in  which 
the  latter  reveals  the  story  of  his  love.  The  king 
promises  to  plead  Tudor's  cause. 

Act  V 

The  opening  and  conclusion  of  this  act  are  taken  up 
with  the  victory  of  Henry  in  politics ;  the  middle  with 
his  victory  in  love. 

Henry  the  Fifth's  character  in  OiTery's  play  is  not  on 
the  whole  remarkable,  and  yet  it  may  properly  serve  as 
an  instance  of  a  hero.  It  is  not  conspicuous;  still  it 
possesses  the  usual  traits  of  its  kind,  which  in  brief  are 
excellence  in  war  and  love,  and  it  does  not  admit  any 
elements  not  also  found  in  other  heroic  plays. 


APPENDIX  C 

BURLESQUE  OF  THE  HEROIC  PLAY 

The  following  scene  taken  from  [Arrowsmith's]  "Refor- 
mation, a  Comedy."  1673.  Act  IV,  Sc.  1,  is  one  of  the  most 
comprehensive  satires  on  rhymed  tragedy.  The  scene  is 
Italy,  the  characters  Italian  except  Tutor,  an  Englishman, 
who  is  questioned  as  to  the  manner  of  dramatic  composition 
in  his  country,  and  thus  gives  instructions  how  to  write  an 
heroic  play. 

"  rwf.  Faith  —  well,  for  an  essay.  I  guess  the  Gentle- 
mans  but  a  beginner.    I  myself  — 

Pis.  Now  he's  in.  {Aside.) 

Tut.   Writ  with  the  fame  much  success  at  first,  'twas 

industry  and  much  converse  that  made  me  ripe  ;  I  tell  you 

Gentlemen,  when  I  first  attemped  this  way,  I  understood  no 

more  of  Poetry  than  one  of  you. 

Fed.   This  is  strange  impudence.  1    -  . , 
A  .    irn-        .u-  *  }  Aside. 

Ant.   'Tis  nothmg  yet  J 

Tut.  There  are  many  pretenders  but  you  see  how  few 
succeed;  and  bating  two  or  three  of  this  nation  as  Tasso, 
Ariosto  and  Ouarini,  that  write  indifferently  well,  the  rest 
must  not  be  named  for  Poesy :  we  have  some  three  or  four, 
as  Fletcher,  Johnson,  Shakespear,  Davenant,  that  have 
scribled  themselves  into  the  bulk  of  follies  and  are  admired 
to,  but  ne'er  knew  the  laws  of  heroick  or  dramatick  poesy, 
nor  faith  to  write  true  English  neither. 

Ant.   'Tis  very  much  I  hope  sir  your  heroick  play  goes  on. 

Tut.  As  fast  as  a  piece  of  that  exactness  can.  I'le  only 
leave  a  pattern  to  the  world  for  the  succeeding  ages  and 
have  done. 

Fed.  Oh  Sir  you'l  wrong  the  world. 

8S8 


APPENDIX  C  229 

Tut.  No  faith  Sir  I  grow  weaxy  of  applause. 

Ant.  "Will  you  give  me  leave  to  ask  the  way  for  others 
to  attain  to  your  perfection  ? 

Tut.  I  will  not  say  but  that  it  may  he  done,  but  trust  me 
you'l  find  it  hard  Gentlemen,  and  since  you  are  my  friends 
I'le  tell  you. 

Fed.   You  will  oblige  us  Sir. 

Tut.  First  I  speak  of  Tragedy,  which,  let  the  world  say 
what  it  will  and  doat  on  little  things,  I  scrible  now  and  then, 
as  good  faith  they  doe  Gentlemen  strangely  ;  you  shall  have 
them — but  I  don't  love  to  praise  myself.  Tragedy  I  say's 
my  Masterpiece. 

Ant.   Everything  you  do  seems  so. 

Tttt.  Nay,  nay,  pray  forbear  Gentlemen.  —  To  go  on : 
I  take  a  subject,  as  suppose  the  Siege  of  Candy,  or  the  con- 
quest of  Flanders,  and  by  the  way  Sir  let  it  alwayes  be 
some  warlike  action ;  you  can't  imagine  what  a  grace  a 
Drum  and  Trumpet  give  a  Play.  Then  Sir  I  take  you  some 
three  or  four  or  half  a  dozen  Kings,  but  most  commonly  two 
or  three  serve  my  turn,  not  a  farthing  matter  whether  they 
lived  within  a  hundred  years  of  one  another,  not  a  farthing 
Gentlemen,  I  have  tryed  it,  and  let  the  Play  be  what  it  will, 
the  Characters  are  still  the  same. 

Fis.   Trust  me  Sir,  this  is  a  secret  of  your  art. 

Tut.  As  Sir  you  must  alwayes  have  two  Ladies  in  Love 
with  one  man,  or  two  men  in  love  with  one  woman  ;  if  you 
make  them  the  Father  and  the  Son  or  two  Brothers,  or  two 
Friends,  'twill  do  the  better.  There  you  know  is  opportunity 
for  love  and  honour  and  Fighting,  and  all  that. 

Fed.   Very  well  Sir. 

Tut.  Then  Sir  you  must  have  a  Hero  that  shall  fight 
with  all  the  world ;  yes  i'  gad,  and  beat  them  too,  and  half 
the  gods  into  the  bargain  if  occassion  serves. 

Ant.   This  method  must  needs  take. 

Tut.  And  does  Sir.    But  give  me  leave  and  mark  it  for 


230  THE  ENGLISH  HEROIC  PLAY 

infallible,  in  all  yoa  write  reflect  upon  religion  and  the 
Clergy ;  you  can't  imagine  how  it  ticldes,  you  shall  have 
the  Gallants  get  those  verses  all  by  heart,  and  fill  their  letters 
with  them  to  their  Country  friends ;  believe  me  this  one 
piece  of  art  has  set  oS  many  an  indifierent  Play,  and  but 
you  are  my  friends  — 

Ant.   You  honour  us. 

Tut.  Last  of  all,  be  sure  to  raise  a  dancing  singing  ghost 
or  two,  court  the  Players  for  half  a  dozen  new  scenes  and 
fine  cloaths  (for  take  me  if  there  ben't  much  in  that  too)  put 
your  story  into  rime,  and  kill  enough  at  the  end  of  the  Play, 
and  Probatum  est  your  business  is  done  for  Tragedy." 


One  of  the  best-known  heroic  plays  was  Settle's  "  Empress 
of  Morocco."  A  quotation,  chiefly  concerned  with  imagery, 
from  the  Prologue  to  T.  Buffet's  burlesque  of  the  same 
name,  1674,  follows.  There  are  other  instances  of  a  parody 
of  a  play  bearing  the  same  title  as  the  original.  Frequently, 
however,  the  title  itself  suggests  both  source  and  character, 
as  "Mock  Tempest"  and  "Psyche  Debauch'd." 

"As  when  some  dogrel-monger  raises 
Up  Muse,  to  flatter  Doxies  praises, 
He  talks  of  Gems  and  Paradises, 
Perfumes  and  Arabian  Spices  : 
Making  up  Phantastick  Posies 
Of  Eye-lids,  Fore-heads,  Cheeks  and  Noses, 
Calling  them  Lillies,  Pinks  and  Roses. 
Teeth  Orient  Pearl,  Coral  Lips  are. 
Neck's  Alablaster  and  Marble  Hips  are  ; 
Prating  of  Diamonds,  Saphyrs,  Rubies, 
What  a  Pudder's  with  these  Boobies? 
Dim  Eyes  are  Stars,  and  Red  hairs  Guinnies  : 
And  thus  described  by  these  Ninnies, 


APPENDIX  C  231 

As  they  sit  scribling  on  Ale-Benches, 
Are  homely  dowdy  Country  Wenches. 
So  when  this  Plot  quite  purg'd  of  Ale  is, 
In  naked  truth  but  a  plain  Tale  is  ; 
And  in  such  dress  we  mean  to  shew  it, 
In  spight  of  our  damn'd  Fustian  Poet, 
Who  has  disguis'd  it  with  dull  Hist'ris, 
Worse  than  his  Brethren  e're  did  Mistress." 

The  large  quantity  of  contemporary  allusions  and  refer- 
ences and  the  presence  of  burlesque  are  an  undeniable  proof 
of  the  popularity  of  the  heroic  play.  The  last  line  of  the 
extract  below,  from  the  epilogue  to  the  same  farce,  contains 
a  very  plausible  generalization. 

"  Be  to  this  joy  thus  kind  you'l  rouse  up  yet, 
Much  better  Farce,  one  more  Heroick  Puppet ; 
When  little  Worm  is  prais'd  it  will  so  brag  o't. 
That  'twill  set  Tail  on  end  of  bigger  Maggot ; 
Since  with  success  great  Bard's  grow  proud  and  resty. 
To  get  good  Plays  be  kind  to  bad  Travesty." 

But  in  the  Restoration  there  arose  four  kinds  of 
dramatic  entertainment :  comedy  of  manners,  heroic  play, 
opera,  and  travesty.  The  name  of  D'Avenant  is  intimately 
associated  with  the  beginnings  of  all  of  them,  comedy  only 
excepted.  For  it  is  said  that  the  last  act  of  the  "Play- 
house to  be  Let,"  staged  probably  in  1664,  and  printed  in 
1673,  is  "  the  earliest  burlesque  dramatic  piece  in  the  English 
language"  (Dramatic  Works  of  Sir  William  D'Avenant, 
edited  by  James  Maidment  and  W.  H.  Logan,  1872,  iv.  6). 
It  is  to  be  noted  that  travesty  did  not  arise  until  the  Golden 
Age  of  the  English  drama  had  passed,  and  it  was  not  suc- 
cessful, in  its  early  stages  at  least,  in  begetting  good  plays. 


^-^.^/cr/, 


I  APPENDIX  D  ^,_^, 

/  r  *  ''^ 

A  LIST  OF  PLAYS  WRITTEN  PARTLY  OR 
WHOLLY  IN  HEROIC  VERSE,  TOGETHER 
WITH  REPRESENTATIVE  REFERENCES. 
1656-1703. 

Note.  —  The  reference  to  Dibdin  is  to  "History  of  the 
Stage  " ;  to  Downes,  Knight's  edition  of  "  Roscius  Aoglicanus  " ; 
to  Garnett,  "Age  of  Dryden  " ;  to  (Josse,  "  Seventeenth  Century 
Studies";  to  Jacob,  "Poetical  Register";  to  Langbaine  and 
Gildon,  the  latter's  additions  to  the  former's. work;  to  Noel, 
the  Introduction  to  Otway  in  the  Mermaid  series;  to  Saints-  J 

bury,  the  "  Life  of  Dryden  " ;  to  Scott,  the  first  volume  of  the  I 

Scott-Saintsbury  edition  of  Dryden.  The  reference  to  Baker  is 
to  the  first  edition  of  "  Ck)mpanion  to  the  Play-house,"  whereas 
Biog.  Dram,  is  an  abbreviation  for  "  Biographica  Dramatica," 
an  enlarged  and  altered  edition  of  the  same  work.  The  other 
references  are  sufficiently  self-explanatory. 

Unless  otherwise  stated,  it  is  to  be  understood  that  a  play 
was  acted  and  published  the  same  year. 

V*^    Alcibiades.    By  Thomas  Otway.    1675. 

Genest.    i.  177  (D.  G.  1675).      ^       p  r  /^ 

Gosae.    pp.  274, 277.  %^     f<  ^        '*'^ 


Baker. 

Dibdin.  i.  100. 

Downes.  p.  36. 

Garnett.  p.  102 


"2,      ih    <je.  {rt^t>f^^/^^^'*-^     ^Ci^ 

"f^^^"^  ^  Appendix  d 


I 

I  Jacob,    i.  195. 

Langbaine.    p.  396. 

Noel.    p.  xi. 

Ward.    i.  413.  ,  c   ^ 

^^_^Almanzor  and  Almahide;  or,  the  Conquest  of 
Granada  by  the  Spaniards.  In  two  parts. 
By  John  Dryden.  1672.  First  part  acted  1669 ; 
second  part  acted  1670. 

Biog.  Dram. 

Garnett.    pp.  85,  85. 

Genest.    i.  101,  102  (T,  R.  1670). 

Jacob,    i.  81. 

Langbaine.    p.  157. 

Saintsbury.    p.  46. 

Scott,    p.  95. 

Ward.    iii.  360. 

Altemira.    By  Lord  Orrery  (Roger  Boyle).    1702.     O    C 

Anon.     Life  of  Betterton.    p.  127. 

Biog.  Dram. 

Genest.    i.  260  (L.  L  F.  1702). 

Jacob,     i.  305. 

Ward.     iii.  344. 

Amazon  Queen;  or,  the  Amours  of  Thalestris 
TO  Alexander  the  Great.  By  John  Weston. 
1667.    Never  acted.        pj         4r^.^      ^  K^^tU    Co^^ 

Baker.  tji,^*^     J'Lt^t>-» 

Langbaine.    p.  510. 
Langbaine  and  Gildon.    p.  147. 


A' 


'/ 


234  THE  ENGLISH  HEROIC  PLAY 


^   V*   ,>»*'      Antony  and  Cleopatra.    By  Sir  Charles  Seoley. 
^   ^l'  1677. 

Anon.    Life  of  Betterton.    p.  94. 
Genest    i.  208  (D.  G.  1677). 
Langbaine.    p.  487. 
Ward.    iii.  447. 

I  I  -     Aureng-Zebe.    By  John  Dryden.    1676. 

Garnett.    p.  87. 

Genest.    i.  174  (T.  R.  1675). 

Langbaine.    p.  156. 

Saintsbury.     p.  56. 

Scott,    p.  175. 

Ward.    i.  370. 

Black  Prince.     By  Lord  Orrery  (Roger  Boyle). 
1669.     Acted  1667.    7^  Ai^-»  yC- *-* 

Genest.    i.  70  (T.  R.  1667).  9 /i*^    &*«, /7/tJ    M*A 

Langbaine.    p.  27.  /m^**^^-*-   /> ''-^   ^i-•c^•, .« 

Pepys'  Diary.     19  Oct.,  1667;  23  Oct.,  1667;  1  April,  ^^/ 

1668.  '^ 

Ward.    iii.  343. 

Boadicea,  Queen  of  Great  Britain.    By  Charles 
Hopkins.     1697. 

Anon.    Life  of  Betterton.    p.  125. 

Downes.    p.  44. 

Genest.     ii.  118  (L.  L  F.  1697). 

Jacob,     p.  141. 

Langbaine  and  Gildon.    p.  74. 


e^^^^oL    uZ^    TVc/^.--. 


'/■ 


APPENDIX  D  236 

Caligula.    By  John  Crowne.  1698.  ' 

Garnett.    p.  il5.  ^    fJ^J 

Genest.     ii.  143  (D.  L.  1698).  V  ^ 

Ward.    i.  403.  ""   "      " 

.-4t^AMBYSES,  King  of  Persia.     By  Elkanah  Settle. 
1671.    Acted  1667. 

Anon.     Life  of  Betterton.    p.  81. 

Dibdin.     iv.  188. 

Downes.     p.  27. 

Genest.     i.  73  (L.  1.  F.  1667). 

Langbaine.     p.  440. 

Prologue.     See  play. 

Scott,     p.  1.55  (foot-note). 

Ward.     iii.  396. 

Charles  VIII  of  France;  or,  the  Invasion  of 
Naples  by  the  French,  History  of.  By  John 
Crowne.    1672.    Acted  1671. 

Dibdin.    iv.  164.  >rr«**-e     />*y^^ 

Downes.    p.  32.  -^  . 

Genest.     i.  124  (D.  G.  1671).     f^^'^^     /^/r^— 
Langbaine.     p.  92.  (U^- c  e  /a^W^/     >- 

Ward.     iii.  400.  ^  j^      ^ 

Comical  Revenge;  or.  Love  in  a  Tub.    Bt  Sir 
r\/  George  Etheredge.    1664.  ^^»  p  o    P,  J^  »U. 

/  Anon.     Life  of  Betterton,  p.  77.  ~c      ^  1  ••  / 

Baker. 

Evelyn's  Diary.    27  April,  1664. 
Downes.    p.  24. 


/: 


236  THE  ENGLISH  HEROIC  PLAT 

Genest.     i.  54  (L.  I.  F.  1684). 
Gosse.     pp.  235,  236,  239,  242. 
Langbaine.     p.  187. 
Pepys'  Diary.    Oct.  29-31,  1666. 
Ward.     iii.  444. 

Conquest  of  China  by  the  Tartars.    By  Elkanah 
Settle.    1676.    Acted  1674. 

Dibdin.     iv.  188.  t)/a/-yW*— t'**^     »-^ 

Downes.    p.  35. 

Genest.    i.  170  (D.  G.  1674).  U^'^^rry 

Langbaine.    p.  440. 

Ward.     iii.  393. 

Conspiracy  ;  or,  the  Change  of  Government.    By  C  C, 
W.  Whitaker.    1680. 

Genest.    1.  280  (D.  G.  1680). 
,  Langbaine.     p.  511. 

Destruction  of  Jerusalem  by  Titus   Vespasian. 
In  two  parts.    By  John  Crowne.    1677. 

Dibdin.    iv.  164. 
Genest.    i.  204  (T.  R.  1677). 
Langbaine.    pp.  95,  529. 
Ward.     iii.  400. 

Destruction  of  Troy.    By  John  Bankes.    1679.   0    ^  ■ 

Acted  1678. 
Baker. 

Dibdin.     iv.  197. 
Downes.    p.  37. 
Genest.    i.  241  (D.  G.  1678). 
Langbaine.    p.  7. 


ipr- 


APPENDIX  D  237 

-Don  Carlos,  Prince  of  Spain.    By  Thomas  Otway. 
1676. 

Anon.     Life  of  Betterton.     p.  93. 

Garaett,    p.  102. 

Dibdin.     iv.  101. 

Downes.     p.  36. 

Genest.     i.  190  (D.  G.  1676). 

Gosse.     pp.  279,  281. 

Langbaine.     p.  398. 

Noel.    p.  2. 

Scott,    p.  163. 

Ward.     iii.  414. 

Double  Distress.    By  Mrs.  Mary  Pix.    1701. 

Biog.  Dram. 

Dibdin.     iv.  344. 

Genest.     i.  240  (L.  I.  F.  1701). 

Jacob,    i.  204. 

Edgar;   or,   The  English  Monarch.     By  Thomas 

Rymer.     1678.     Never  acted.         /4<^et\    /'«**-« 
Baker. 

Dibdin.     iv.  124.  ^C*.<jul^    -  ^»— «-  <*  **^ 

Genest.     i.  223.  *_ 

Langbaine.     p.  434.  0*^/^  ^  /#Vt^.cA  — /  ^     *»>     ^ 

Empress  of  Morocco.    By  Elkanah  Settle.    1673. 
Acted  1671. 
Gamett.    p.  118. 

Genest.     i.  154  (D.  G.  1673).           Ar  A*-         ^^rr.^^ 
Jacob,     i.  220.                                    U^^    ^='*^* 
Johnson.     Life  of  Dryden. 
Langbaine.    p.  440. 
^svy  'sttjt^  ^cfc^v »»  ^    ^ 


THE  ENGLISH  HEROIC  PLAY 


Scott,     p.  158. 
Ward.     iii.  396. 


iij-    English    Princess;    or,    Death    of    Richard    III. 
By  J.  Caryl  (?).     1667. 

Anon.     Life  of  Betterton.     p.  82.    f/#^-^»— 
Downes.     p.  27.  ^ir£Uk  ttUmC 

Genest.     i.  73  (L.  L  F.  1667).  ^r^T^'S^^;;^^ 

Pepys'  Diary.     March  7,  1666-1667.  fJi*/^  -m^/k-t^ 


Fatal  Jealousie.    By  Nevil  Payne  (?).    1673.  ^'  ^'^a. 

Acted  1672. 
Biog.  Dram.  ^i&-i,*cc.  »U*,    i*.«-^&A^      ^     /D47 

Downes.     p.  33.  f- »,>^^     ^^ca^^a^     /X..4i 

Genest.     i.  144  (D.  G.  1672).     ?^  U^J^U^iU^     ' 
Langbaine.    p.  53L  X -^<uJi  .,l||*. 

Gloriana;   or,    the   Court   of   ArousTus   Caesar. 
By  Nathaniel  Lee.    1676. 
Baker.  J*e^*^^  "—I-      tA^        r 

Dibden.     iv.  185.  0    jfU^^^^lt^^^      ^' 

Genest.     i.  185  (T.  R.  1676).        mJ  -  A^A 
Langbaine.     p.  322.       -^  .-t-t^*A4«.  •—*       /^^    ,       ,- 

^  J  ^      Great  Favorite;  or,  the  Duke  of  Lerma.    By  Sir  C»  <  "A 
Robert  Howard.    1668.         .         y       ^        ^ 

Genest.     i.  80  (T.  R.  1668).  4/bm^4^4.      A4i /W.* 

Langbaine.     p.  276. 

Pepys'  DUry.      Jan.  11,  1667;  Jan.  20,  1667;  April 
1%  1668. 
Ward.    iii.  394. 


APPENDIX   D  239 


King  Henry  V;  History  of.    By  Lord  Orrery  'I*  ,   f  'f^K 

(Roger  Boyle).    1667.    Acted  1664. 


Downes.     p.  27.  ^  " ''  "^      ^  jg        ^  ^ 

Genest.     i.  53  (L.  I.  F.  1664).         ^^-f.     ^^     /T^-rf -&^.-—    >«.• 
Langbaine.    p.  28.  A^  f,  C U^^  ,    ^    >v.--..  ^ 

Pepys'  Diary.  Aug.  10,  1664 ;  Aug.  13,  1664 ;  Aug.  17,  ^^^  ^"^ 
1664  ;  Sept.  28,  1664 ;  Dec.  28, 1666  ;  Feb.  13, 1666-1667 ;  ^  ^^*^'  \ 
Oct.  19,  1667;  July  6,  1668.  ''^^— •,  *^^ 

Ward.     iii.  342.  p^^--^^. 

Henry  the  Third  of  France  Stabb'd  by  a  Fryer 
WITH  the  Fall  of  the  Guise.  By  Thomas 
Shipman.    1678.  >/ci-c-w^    01  €a  *i      Jt^m^-^^^ 

Genest.    i.  229  (T.  R.  1678).  N-    v/V .    ^^  ^s-*^Ju 

Langbaine.    p.  473. 

Herod  and  Mariamne.      By  Samuel  Pordage.   15.  ^  •  P«C 
1673.      ^,  A.  ^  o-..^     Qcf~^^ji^L^ 

Genest.     i.  171  (D.  G.  1674).       /^-*»*^.  /^.     ;^  ^^^^•^  '^^ 

Langbaine.     p.  406. 


Herod  the  Great.    By  Lord  Orrery  (Roger      C  ^  '  9i  ^ 

Boyle).    1694.    Never 

Genest.    i.  131.  ^s^*-^  tA^     9  /l^^y  V 


Boyle).    1694.    Never  acted,  gj/g  f-  .JL  /} 

V  •^^  ""-"^  ""T-        jr  »»W^" 

Ward.     iii.  344.  .,     /^    /^  ^^ 

Ibrahim,  the  Illustrious  Bassa.    By  Elkanah     O    C  ,p.J^ 

Settle.    1677.     Acted  1676. 
Genest.     i.  187  (D.  G.  1676).  //>A  U'^U*   y*-^ 

Langbaine,    p.  441.  /^jt^jUMt      Jf^^^^^J^ 

Pepys'  Diary.    June  19,  1668.  y,  ,^^^e.      A  v« 

Ward.    iii.  395.  r  tr^  / 


840  THE  ENGLISH  HEROIC  PLAY 

Indian  Empekor;  or,  Conquest  ok  Mexico.    By 
John  Dryden.    1667.    Acted  1665. 
J    . 
Dibdin.     iv.  157.  x« 

Garnett.    pp.  76-77.         ^^  / 

Genest.    i.  (T.  K  1665).'^^ 

Langbaine.    p.  165. 

Pepys'  Diary.  Jan.  15,  1666-1667;  Aug.  22,  1667; 
Oct.  28,  1667;  Nov.  11,  1667;  Jan.  14,  1667-1668;  Mar. 
28,  1668  ;  April  21,  1668. 

Saintsbtuy.    p.  42. 

Scott,    p.  71. 

Ward.     iii.  349.  . 

Indian  Queen.    By  Sir  Robert  Howard  ANpJoHN ^»  V'^ 
DuYDEN.    166.5.    Acted  If"" 


iV/  /■■ 


Genest.    i.  57  (T.  R.  1665).  ^         ^         y 

Langbaine.    p.  276.  ^  y.^        / 

Pepys'  Diary.    Jan.  27,  1663pW64i,  June|B7,  \^. 
Saintsbury.     p.  42.  r        if  ^ 

Scott,    p.  69.  Y  •       y    y^    y 

Ward.    iii.  348.  {      /^  l*'^ 


Love's  Triumph  ;  ok,  the  Royal  Union.    By  Ed. 

Cooke.    1678.     f^*^   f^  ^^^*^' 

Langbaine.    p.  71.  _  6 

Ward,    iu.295.  ^'*^**'/'*  .^    jf  ^^ 

King  Saul,  Tragedy  of.    By  Rev.  Joseph  Tratp(?). 
1703.    Never  acted. 
Genest    x.  151. 


APPENDIX  D  241 

^Jp"  Marcelia,  or  the  Treacherous  Friend.    Bt  Mrs. 
Francis  Boothby.      1670.    Acted  1669. 
Genest.     i.  97  (T.  R.  1669). 

Marriage -a-la-Mode.  By  John  Dryj/en.    1673. 

Dibdin.     iv.  p.  166.  /      c/ 
Genest.     i.  133  (T.  R.  1672).       .  f/       / 

Langbaine.     p.  166.  T      ^a 

Saintsbury.     p.  54.  <(^ 
Scott,     p.  122. 
Ward.     iii.  366,  367. 

-^-^  MusTAPHA,  Son  of  Solyman  the  Magnificent.    By 
Lord  Orrery  (Roger  Boyle).    1668.    Acted  1665. 
Downes.     p.  25.  >/<a-ucM^     /I^t***  f  *^Y 

Evelyn's  Diary.     Sept.  18, 1666.    ^  ^^j^^t^m   »*^    ^*^  ^*^''  ^^ 
Genest.     i.  61.  ^g^e^rt  ^     ^^y  1*2*  % 

Langbaine,     p.  28.  /^ 

Pepys'  Diary.     April  3,  1665 ;  Jan.  5,  1666-1667 ;  Sept. 
3,  1667. 
Ward.    iii.  343. 

Nero,   Emperor   of   Rome;   His   Tragedy.     By 
Nathaniel  Lee.    ,l4r6. 


Genest.    i.  172  (T.  R.  1675).  \y     4      I 
Gosse.     p.  277.  ^       f      >*      ^ 

Langbaine.    p.  324.  ^%       j/^  -^  /^ 

Ward.    iii.  408.  >)*       V        ^* 


Rival  Kings;   or.  The  Loves  of  Oroondates  and    O-  *.Rj 
Statira.    By  John  Bankes.    1677. 
Baker. 
Dibdin.    iv.  197. 


V     VI 


S4S  THE  ENGLISH  HEROIC  PLAY 

Genest.     i.  200  (T.  R.  1677). 
Langbaine.    p.  8. 

Rival  Ladies.    Bv  John  Drtde^  1664.    Acted  1663, 

Genest.     i.  50  (T.  R.  1664).     f^ 
Langbaine.     p.  167.  J 

Pepys'  Diary.     July  18,  l466 ;  Aug.  2,  1666 ;  Aug.  4, 
1664.  ^' 

Saintsbury.     p.  42.     \ 
Scott,     pp.  68,  mM 
Ward.    ill.  347.      ' 

Rival  Sisters;  or,  the  Violence  oi  Lov^.    By    f>%t  Y\ 
Robert  Gould.    1896.^'    /  * 

Genest.    ii.  75  (D.  G.  1696).    /  y       X   y^      {     / 
Jacob,    i.  119.  >    ^V        Vf  \/     J      ■/ 

Langbaine  and  Gildon.    p.  65.       \  \      y  i^    \r 

Sacrifice.     By  Sir  Francis  Fane.     168^  Never  /         / 
acted,      V      j  \\w       **        ^ 

Secret  Love  ;  or,  The  Maiden  Queen.    By  John 

Dryden.    1668. 
Dibdin.     iv,  157. 
Langbaine.    p.  169. 

Pepys'  Diary.    Jan.  19, 1666-1667 ;  Mar.  25, 1666-1667 ; 
Aug.  23,  1667;  Jan.  24, 1667-1668  ;  May  24,  1667. 
Saintsbury.    p.  43. 
Scott,     p.  89. 
Ward.     iii.  350. 


Langbaine.    p.  189. 


APPENDIX  D 


y/  248 

'>^r    Siege  of  Babylon.    By  Samuel  Pc)m>age.    ^678. 
Acted  1677.      J'  ^   ^ ^^ 


Anon.  Life  of  Betterton.  p 
Genest.  i.  213  (D.  G.  1677) 
Langbaine.     p.  406. 


'^^  Siege    of    Memphis  ;    or,    the    Ambitious    Qukest. 
By  Thomas  Durfey.    1676.        J' 

Dibdin.    iv.  180.  ^        ^    ^  ^^ 

Genest.     iv.  183  (T  ~ 

Langbaine.    p.  183.  *'  '  /  JL 

\ 


Pibdin.    iv.  ISO.  Y^        ^    ^    j 

Genest.    iy.  183  (T.  R.  1676).     ,iVY  /  /      y*^  i^ 


tv 


//  ^ 


1/  -^ 


Siege  of  Rhodes.    By  Sir  William  D'AviartCinJj  \fJ'        ^ 

Downes.     p.  20.  ^/  ^  i/  * 

Evelyn's  Diary.    Jan.  9,  1662.    ^^   r^^  .     ^        tV         ^ 
Genest.     i.  37  (L.  I.  F.  1661).     ^      ^       V^      ,^f     \%^ 
Knight,     (pref.  to  Downes)  pp.  xv-xxii.  A*^     i  -'*' 

Langbaine.    p.  110.  »^      ^      \^ 

Pepys'  Diary.  June  2,  1661;  Nov.  15,  1661;  May  19, 
1662  ;  Dec.  27,  1662 ;  Sept.  23,  1664 ;  Oct.  1,  1665  ;  Jan. 
23,1666;  Dec.  19,  1668. 

Ward.    iii.  328. 

^  -4|^  Sophonisba  ;  or,  Hannibal's  Overthrow.    By 
Nathaniel  Lee.    1676. 

Dibdin.    iv.  185. 

Genest.     i.  183  (T.  R.  1676).       /"         J-*' 
Langbaine.    p.  325.  T  \y     <^Q^ 

Ward.    iii.  408-409.  "^  ^ 


S44  THE  ENGLISH  HEROIC  PLAY 

State  or  Innocence  ;  and,  Fall  of  Man.    By  John 
Dryden.    1^74.    Nevep/kted. 

Dibdin.     iii.  168.        J'     #j     ,  ^ 
Jacob.     i.81.       ^-^ y.<   j} 
Genest.     i.  180.  \S      J/ 

Langbaine.  p.  172.  JL  '        ' 
Scott,    p.  140.         ^      > 

Tryphon.    By  Lord  Orrery  (Roger  Boyle).    1668. 

Genest.    i.  87.    ("  Never  acted.") 
Langbaine.    p.  28.     ("  Acted.") 
Ward.    iii.  344. 

Tyrannic  Love  ;  or,  the  Virgin  Martyr.    By  John 
Dryden.    1670.    Acted  1669. 

Biog.  Dram.    iii.  /» 

Dibdin.     iv.  163.  *\A          ^ 

Gamett.    p.  84.  >/       J          ^ 
Genest.     i.  94  (T.  R.  1669).«</^       -/       y 

Hogarth.    1.119.  o^       \m         S\ 

Jacob,     i.82.  ^^      /Y/     .^y./.^ 

Johnson.     Life  of  Dryden.  Pt  /      J*         ^-^ 


Langbaine 

Langbaine  and  Gildon.    p.  47.  ^      ^^/ 

Saintsbury.     p.  44.  • 

Scott,    p.  94. 

Vestal  Virgin;  or,  the  Roman  Ladies.    By  Sir    v,,.^. 
Robert  Howard.    1665. 

Genest.     i.  56  (D.  G.  16^5). 
Langbaine.    p.  277. 


^^ 


INDEX 


Addison,  Joseph,  31,  209. 

"Albion  and  Albanius,"  196- 
199,  204. 

"  Alcibiades,"  40  n.,  232. 

Alexis,  205. 

"  Almanzor  and  Almahide": 
see  "  Conquest  of  Granada." 

"Alteraira,"  17,  77,  102  n., 
131  n.,  164  n.,  23:3. 

"  Amazon  Queen,"  17, 49,  80  n., 
88-92,  103  n.,  125  n.,  149  n., 
180  n.,  183-184,  233. 

"Ambitious  Queen":  see 
"Siege  of  Memphis." 

"  Amboyna,"  122  n.,  145, 159  n., 
169  n. 

"  Amours  of  Thalestris  to  Alex- 
ander the  Great "  :see"  Ama- 
zon Queen." 

Anonymous  "  Life  of  Better- 
ton,"  210,  233,  234,  235,  237, 
238,  243. 

"  Antony  and  Cleopatra  "  (Duf- 
fet's),  230-231. 

"  Antony  and  Cleopatra  "  (Sed- 
ley's),  43,  152,  218-224,  234. 

"Antony  and  Cleopatra" 
(Shakespeare's),  43,  217-218. 

"  Ariadne,"  204. 

Ariosto,  191,  228. 

Aristotle,  27,  29. 

Arrowsmith,  228. 

"  Aureng-Zebe,"  34, 100, 106  n.. 


114  n.,  120,  122  n.,  124  n., 
125  n.,  132  n.,  133  n.,  139,  154, 
161  n.,  173  n.,  175  n.,  178  n., 
179,  187  n.,  208,  234. 

Baker,  D.  E.,  71,  205,  232,  233, 

235,  236,  237,  238,  240,  242. 
Bankes,  John,  6n.,  22  n.,  49, 

137,  2m,  242. 
Behn,  Mrs.  Aphra,  56  n. 
Beljame's  "  Le  Public  et   les 

Hommes  de  JjCttres,"  189  n. 
Betterton,  205,  206,  207,  210. 
"  Biographia  Dramatica,"  71  n. 

205,  232,  233,  237,  238. 
"Black  Prince,"  19,  39  n.,  79, 

113  n.,   117  n.,  130  n.,  141  n., 

143,  153, 160  n.,  234. 
"Boadicea,"  141  n.,  144,  154, 

234. 
Boothby,  Mrs.  F.,  6  n.,    101, 

241. 
Boyle,  Roger :  see  Orrery. 
Bracegirdle,  Mrs.,  12  n. 
"  Brutus  of  Alba,"  204. 
Buckingham,  Duke  of,  165  n. 
Bulwer,  55  n. 
Burbage,  211. 

"  Caligula,"  35,  36,  40  n.,  51  n., 
72-76,  111,  153,  159,  174-175, 
179  n.,  235. 

Calprenede,  108, 109  n. 


245 


246 


INDEX 


Cambert,  204. 

•'  Cambyses,"    25,    61  n.,    98, 

235. 
Caryl,  John,  22  n.,  43,  64,  143, 

214,  238. 
"  Cassandra,"  204. 
"Catiline,"  206. 
"Change of  Government " :  see 

"  Conspiracy." 
Charles  II,  23,  109  n.,  123,  189, 

204,  212. 
"  Charles  VIII,"  18. 131  n.,  163, 

235. 
Chaucer's    "Legend  of   Good 

Women,"  224-225. 
"Circe,"  9,  13,205. 
"  Cleopatre,"  109  n. 
Clifford,  Martin,  100  n. 
Collier's  "  Short  View,"  175. 
"  Comical    Revenge,"    14,    17, 

102  n.,  112  n.,  154,  235. 
Congreve,  212. 
"  Conquest  of  China,"  21,  48  n., 

66-68,  98  n.,  99  n.,  152, 166  n., 

172  n.,  236. 
"  Conquest  of   Granada,"  21, 

39, 46  n.,  55-65, 77,  100, 113 n., 

118  n.,    122  n.,    125  n.,    127, 

128  n.,  130  n.,  132  n.,  176  n., 

177  n.,  233. 
"Conquest  of    Mexico"  :    see 

"  Indian  Emperor." 
"Conspiracy,"    77,    97,   98  n., 

155  n.,  158,  170  n.,  236. 
Cooke,  Edward,  34  n.,  Mi. 
"  Court  of  Augustus  Caesar  "  : 

see  "Gloriana." 
Courthope's  "  Addison,"  123  n. 
Cowley,  3  n. 
Cromwell,  Oliver,  10. 
Crowne,  John,  15  n.,  18  n.,  36  n., 

72-73,  74, 128  n.,  174, 190, 235, 

236. 


"  Cruelties  of  the  Dutch  to  the 
English  Merchants":  see 
"  Amboyna." 

"  Curious  Impertinent " :  see 
"Married  Beau." 

"  Cynthia  and  Endymion,"  204. 

D'Avenant,  Dr.  Charles,  9n., 

13,  205. 

D'Avenant,  Sir  William,  2n., 

14,  204,  228,  231,  243. 
Davis,  Mary,  12  n. 

"Death  of  Richard  III":  see 
"English  Princess." 

"Defence  of  an  Essay  of  Dra- 
matic Poesy,"  33. 

Denham,  3  n. 

"Destruction  of  Jerusalem," 
128, 174.  236. 

"  Destruction  of  Troy,"  6, 98  n., 
153,  208,  236. 

Dibdin's  "History  of  the 
Stage,"  210,  232,  235,  236, 
238,  240,  241,  243,  244. 

Donaldson's  "Theatre  of  the 
Greeks,"  16  n. 

"Don  Carlos,"  40  n.,  52n.,  55  n., 
56  n.,  126  n.,  132  n.,  173  n., 
206,237. 

"Double  Discovery":  see 
"Spanish  Friar." 

"  Double  Distress,"  237. 

Downes,  "Roscius  Anglica- 
nus,"  17,  203,  232,  234,  236, 
2.36,  237,  2.38,  239,  241,  243. 

Draghi,  G.  B.,  207. 

Dryden,  John,  2,  3.  6, 14, 17, 21, 
23,  25,  30,  32,  33  u.,  34  n.,  39, 
40  n.,  46  n.,  47,  48  n.,  49  n., 
51  n.,  54,  5(),  63,  65,  81,  86,  87, 
100, 106,  107,  108,  109  n.,  110, 
122n.,  124, 125, 132, 145, 151  n., 
155,  160,  162  n.,  1G9,  173  n.. 


INDEX 


247 


175  n.,  190,  196,  198, 199,  201, 
205,  206,  208,   209,  210,  233, 

240,  242,  244. 

"Dryden's  Essays,"  edited  by 

W,  P.  Ker,  9  n. 
Buffet,  T.,  230. 
"  Duke  of  Lerma  " :  see  "  Great 

Favorite." 
Durfey,  Thomas,  26 n.,  204,243. 

Ecclestton,  205. 

"Edgar,"   3  n.,   19,  22,  26  n., 

141,  153, 154,  237. 
Edward's    "Lyrical   Drama," 

202,  203. 
"Empress  of  Morocco,"  79,  97, 

99  n.,  156, 174,  208,  230,  237. 
"English      Monarch":       see 

"Edgar." 
"English  Princess,"  22,  43,  72, 

79  n.,   88  n.,  118,  141  n.,  142 

n.,    143,    153,    181-182,    206, 

214-217,  238. 
"Essay  on  Heroic  Plays,"  47- 

48,  51  n.,  64-65,  108  n.,  124  n., 

198,  206,  208,  210. 
Etheridge,  Sir  George,  14,  235. 
Euripides,  20. 
Evelyn's  Diary,  17,  235,  240, 

241,  243. 

"  Fairy  Queen,"  204. 

Fane,  Sir  Francis,  6  n.,  242. 

"Fatal  Jealousie,"  17,  32  n., 
69-71,  98  n.,  101,  134,  164  n., 
177  n.,  179  n.,  180  n.,  184-186, 
187  n.,  188  n.,  238. 

Fletcher,  205,  228. 

Garnett's  "  Age  of  Dryden," 
56,  232,  233,  234,  235, 237,  240, 
244. 

Genest's  "  Some  Account  of  the 
English  Stage,"  3,  9  n.,  16, 


17,  19,  72,  74  n.,  92  n.,  110, 

143,   203,   232,   233,  234,  235, 

236,   237,   238,  239,   240,  241, 

242,  243,  244. 
Glanvil,  Joseph,  184. 
"Gloriana,"  238. 
Gosse's  "  Seventeenth  Century 

Studies,"  232,  236,  237,  241, 
Gould,  Robert,  242. 
Grabue,  204. 
Granville,   George:    see   Lord 

Lansdowiie. 
Gray,  Thomas,  110  n. 
"Great    Favorite,"    5,    32  n., 

99  n.,  153,  162  n.,  170  n.,  176 

n.,  208,  238. 
"  Great  Mogul  -."see"  Aureng- 

Zebe." 
Grove's  "  Dictionary  of  Music," 

195. 
Guarini,  228. 

"Hannibal's  Overthrow":  see 

"  Sophonisba." 
Harris,  12  n. 
"  Herod  and  Mariamne,"  48  n., 

77,  97,  206,  239. 
Hennequin's  "  Art  of  Playwrit- 

ing,"  12  n. 
"Henry  III,"  2,  25  n.,  116  n., 

118,   145-147,   153,   157,    160- 

161  n.,    164  n.,    167  n.,     168, 

188  n.,  239, 
"  Henry  V  "  (Orrery's),  18,  36- 

37,  42,  79,  113  n.,  116  n.,  117 

n.,  121  n.,  130  n.,  132  n.,  135- 

137,  142,  143,  157,  163  n,,  226- 

227,  239. 
"  Henry  V"    (Shakespeare's), 

43,  225-226. 
"  Herod  the  Great,"  77, 97, 102- 

103,  123  n.,  1.^1  n,,  162  n.,  168 

n.,  172  n.,  181  n.,  239. 


248 


INDEX 


"  Herolck  Love,"  4,  27. 
Hettner,  Hermann,  106  n. 
Hogarth's    "Memoirs   of    the 

Opera,"  11  n.,  12  n.,  19G,  208, 

20y,  244. 
HoUinshead,  141. 
Holli well's  "Dictionary  of  Old 

Plaj's,"  205. 
Holzhauscn's  "  Dryden's  Hero- 

isches  Drama,"  34,  40  n.,  54, 

81,100,  106  n.,  109  n.,  162  n., 

17.3  n. 
Homer,  108, 109  n.,  191. 
Hopkins,  Charles,  144  n.,  234. 
Howard,  Sir  Robert,  5  n.,  33, 

98  n.,   125  n.,   155,    238,    240, 

244. 
Hutchinson's      "  Witchcraft," 

184  n. 

"Ibrahim,"  45  n.,  77,  79,  87, 

105,  1.50  u.,  206,  239. 
"Indian  Emperor,"  113  n.,  114 

n.,  124  n.,  125  n.,  126,  127  n., 

153,  208,  240. 
"  Indian  Queen,"  125,  153,  155, 

208,240. 
"  Invasion  of    Naples  by  the 

French":      tee      "Charles 

vin." 

"Island  Princess,"  205. 
"  Italian  Hasband,"  29  n. 

Jacob's  "  Poetical  Register," 
27-28,  29  n.,  40  n.,  232,  233, 
aM,  237,  242,  244. 

Johnson,  Dr.  Samuel,  30,  237, 
244. 

Jonson,  Ben,  195,  201,  206,  228. 

Killigrew,  Sjr  William,  16 n. 
"King  Arthur,"  199-200,  204. 
"  King  Saul,"  242. 


Knight's     preface     to     John 

Downes,   "Roscius  Anglica- 

nus,"  8  n.,  243. 
Koertiug's     "  Geschichte    des 

Fransoschische       Romans," 

109  n. 

"Lancashire  Witches,"  203. 

Langbaine's  "  Account  of  the 
English  Dramatic  Poets," 
3n.,  8,  9n.,  17,  19,  26,  52, 
92  n.,  201,  203,  206,  232,  233, 
234,  235,   236,  237,  238,  239, 

240,  241,  242.  243. 
Langbaine's  "  Momus  Triam- 

phans,"  27  n. 
Langbaine  and  Gildon,  206,  232, 

233,  23i,  242,  244. 
Laniere,  Nicolo,  195. 
Lansdowne,  Lord,  4  n.,  27-28. 
Lee,  Nathaniel,  153  n.,  190, 238, 

241,  243. 

"  Libertine,"  19. 

Lock's  "Macbeth,"  195. 

Logan,  W.  H.,  40  n.,  72-74, 231. 

"  Love  in  a  Tub  " :  see  "  Comi- 
cal Revenge." 

"  Loves  of  Oroondates  and  Sta- 
tira  " :  see  "  Rival  Kings." 

"  Love's  Triumph,"  34,  240. 

LoweU,  J.  R.,  110  n.,  188. 

Macaulay,  T.  B.,  30. 

"  Maiden  Queen,"  26  n.,  40  n., 

46  n.,  81-87,  240. 
Maidment,  James,  40  n.,  72-74, 

231. 
"  Marcelia,"  6,  17,  25  n.,  68-69, 

98  n.,  101,  118,  153,  154,  158, 

208,241. 
Marlowe,  189. 
"  Marriage-a-la-Mode,"  17,  40 

n.,  87, 154,  241. 


INDEX 


249 


"  Married  Beau,"  15  n. 

"  Midsummer  Night's  Dream," 

204. 
Milton's  "  Comus,"  195, 
"  Miser,"  24  n. 
"  Mock  Tempest,"  230. 
MoUeux,  204. 
Moimtfort,  12  n. 
"Mustapha,"    40  n.,    77,    159, 

206,241. 

"  Nero,"  241. 

"  Noah's  Flood,"  205. 

Noel,  Hon.  Roden,  106  n.,  232, 

233,  237. 
Nokes,  101. 

"  Ormasdes,"  16. 

"  Oroonoko,"  56  n. 

Orrery,  Earl  of,  17  n.,  18  n.,  19 
n.,  35,  37n.,  39  n.,  42,  52,  54, 
77  n.,  102  n.,  113  n.,  121,  125 
n.,  137,  138,  143, 149,  226, 228, 
233,  234,  239,  241,  244. 

•' Othello,"  71  n. 

Otway,  Thomas,  40n.,  52,  56n., 
106  n.,  190,  232. 

*'  Paradise,"  205. 

"  Pastor  Fido,"  205. 

Payne,  Henry  Neville,   17  n., 

238. 
Pepys'  Diary,  200,  234,  236,  238, 

239,  240,  241,  242,  243. 
Pepys,  Samuel,  11,  81  n.,  170  n. 
Pix,  Mrs.  Mary,  237. 
"  Playhouse  to  be  Let,"  231. 
Pope,  Alexander,  30,  188. 
Pordage,  Samuel,  48  n.,  97  n., 

137,  239,  243. 
Powell  and  Verbruggen,  204. 
"Prophetess,"  205. 


"  Psyche,"  200-201,  205,  207. 
"  Psyche  Debauch'd,"  230. 
Purcell,    Henry,   11,   195,  196, 
199,  200,  208,  209. 

Racine,  34. 

"  Rape  of  the  Lock,"  188. 

Ravencroft,  Edward,  29  n.,  155 

n.,  170. 
"Reformation,"  228. 
"Rehearsal,"  165,  166. 
"  Richard  HI,"  43, 153, 213-214. 
"  Richelieu,"  55 n. 
"Rival  Kings,"  22,  49,  99  n., 

112,  115  n.,  138-139,  208,  242. 
"Rival  Ladies,"   14,   17,   154, 

242. 
"Rival  Sisters,"  242. 
"  Roman  Ladies  "  :  see  "  Vestal 

Virgin." 
"  Romeo  and  Juliet,"  101. 
Rousseau,  J.  J.,  56  n. 
"Royal   Martyr":    see    "Ty- 
rannic Love." 
"Royal  Union":  see  "Love's 

Triumph." 
Rymer,  3,  19,  30,  31, 190,  237. 
Rymer's    "  Tragedies    of    the 

Last  Age,"  26-30,  38-39. 

"Sacrifice,"  6,  50  n.,  76  n.,  99 

n.,  102   n.,  114   n.,   115   n., 

242. 
St.  Andree,  207. 
Saintsbury,  George,  196. 
Saintsbury's  "Lifeof  Dryden," 

10  n.,  232,  233,  234,  240,  241, 

242,244. 
Scott,  Sir  Walter,  196,  232,  233, 

234,  235,  237,  238,  240,  241, 

242,  244. 
"Secret  Love":  see  "Maiden 

Queen." 


S60 


INDEX 


Sedley,  Sir  Charles,  43,  64,  218, 

234. 
Settle  Elkanali,  21,  25,  45,  79 

n.,  152,  204,  205,  208,  230, 235, 

236,  237,  ZVJ. 
Shadwell,  Thomas,   19  n.,    24, 

106  n.,    190,    201,    203,    205, 

207. 
Shakespeare,  42,  43,  45,  46,  47, 

63,  66,  71,  140,  143,  153,  191, 

195,  206,  213,  217,  225,  228. 
Shipman,  Thomas,  2  n.,  239. 
"  Siege  of  Babylon,"  90  n.,  97, 

104n.,  173n.,206,  243. 
"  Siege   of    Memphis,"    26  n., 

48  n.,  92-96, 99  n.,  115, 122  n., 

123  n.,  162, 172  n.,  174  n.,  208, 

243. 
"  Siege  of  Rhodes,"  2,  7-9,  11^ 

120, 124  n.,  125  n.,  162  n.,  195, 

2(M,  243. 
"  Sophonisba,"  40  n.,  153,  243. 
"  Spanish  Friar,"  65  n. 
"State  of    Innocence,"  40  n., 

151  n,,  196,  205,  244. 
Stephen,  Sir  Leslie,  169. 
Stow,  141. 
Suetonius,  74,  75. 

Talfourd,  T,  N.,  30  n. 
Tasso,  30, 108,  109  n.,  191,  228. 
Tate,  N.,  20*. 
"Tempest,"  205. 


Trapp,  Rer.  Joseph,  242. 
"Treacherous     Friend":     tee 

"  Marcelia." 
"Tryphon,"  37,  77-79,  103-104, 

116  n.,  117  n.,  130  n.,  206,  244. 
"  Tyrannic  Love,"  40  n.,  49  n., 

76  n.,  112  n.,  153,  176  n.,  186 

n.,  208,  244. 

Verbruggen :  see  Powell. 

"Vestal  Virgin,"  39  u.,  98  n 
163,  244. 

Villiera,  Gteorge:  see  Duke  of 
Buckingham. 

"  Violence  of  Love":  «ec" Ri- 
val Sisters." 

"  Virgin  Martyr  "  :  «ec  "Tyran- 
nic Love." 

Waller,  3  n. 

Warburton,  143. 

Ward's  "History  of  English 
Dramatic  Literature,"  4,  8  n., 
14  n.,  15  n.,  16  n.,  17,  40  n., 
73  n.,  102  n.,  202,  209,  232, 
233,  234,  235,  236,  237,  238, 
239,  240,  241,  242,  243,  244. 

West's  "Laureates  of  Eng- 
land," 106  n. 

Weston,  John,  17  n.,  49,  233. 

Whitaker,  M.,  77  n.,  23«>. 

"  World  in  the  Moon,"  204, 206. 

Wright's  "Historia  Histrion- 
ica,"  12  n.,  202. 


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